Hydrogen Science and Engineering, 2 Volume Set Materials, Processes, Systems, and Technology
, by Stolten, Detlef; Emonts, Bernd
- ISBN: 9783527332380 | 3527332383
- Cover: Hardcover
- Copyright: 3/21/2016
Authored by 50 top academic, government and industry researchers, this handbook explores mature, evolving technologies for a clean, economically viable alternative to non-renewable energy. In so doing, it also discusses such broader topics as the environmental impact, education, safety and regulatory developments.
The text is all-encompassing, covering a wide range that includes hydrogen as an energy carrier, hydrogen for storage of renewable energy, and incorporating hydrogen technologies into existing technologies.
Detlef Stolten is the Director of the Institute of Energy Research at the Forschungszentrum Jülich. Prof. Stolten received his doctorate from the University of Technology at Clausthal, Germany. He served many years as a Research Scientist in the laboratories of Robert Bosch and Daimler Benz/Dornier. In 1998 he accepted the position of Director of the Institute of Materials and Process Technology at the Research Center Jülich, Germany. Two years later he became Professor for Fuel Cell Technology at the University of Technology (RWTH) at Aachen. Prof. Stolten's research focuses on fuel cells, implementing results from research in innovative products, procedures and processes in collaboration with industry, contributing towards bridging the gap between science and technology. His research activities are focused on energy process engineering of SOFC and PEFC systems, i.e. electrochemistry, stack tech-nology, process and systems engineering as well as systems analysis. Prof. Stolten represents Germany in the Executive Committee of the IEA Annex Advanced Fuel Cells and is on the advisory board of the journal Fuel Cells.
Dr. Bernd Emonts is the Deputy Director of the Institute of Energy Research at the Jülich Research Center, Germany. He received his diploma in structural engineering from the Aachen University of Applied Sciences, Germany, in 1981. He went on to specialize in the fundamentals of mechanical engineering at RWTH Aachen University, Germany and was awarded his PhD in 1989. Working as a scientist, Dr. Emonts has been involved in extensive research and development projects in the areas of catalytic combustion and energy systems with low-temperature fuel cells. Between 1991 and 1994, he concurrently worked as an R & D advisor for a German industrial enterprise in the drying and coating technologies sector. In addition to his scientific activities at Jülich Research Center, Germany, Dr. Emonts lectured at Aachen University of Applied Sciences from 1999 to 2008. Dr. Emonts has published extensively in the field of Hydrogen Sciences and Fuel Cells.
List of Contributors xxxi
Volume 1
Part 1 Sol–Gel Chemistry and Methods 1
1 Hydrogen in Refineries 3
James G. Speight
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Hydroprocesses 4
1.3 Refining Heavy Feedstocks 11
1.4 Hydrogen Production 12
1.5 Hydrogen Management 14
2 Hydrogen in the Chemical Industry 19
Florian Ausfelder and Alexis Bazzanella
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Sources of Hydrogen in the Chemical Industry 22
2.3 Utilization of Hydrogen in the Chemical Industry 32
3 Chlorine–Alkaline Electrolysis – Technology and Use and Economy 41
Alessandro Delfrate
3.1 Introduction 41
3.2 Production Technologies 42
3.3 Use of Chlorine and Sodium Hydroxide 52
Part 2 Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier 57
Part 2.1 Introduction and National Strategies 57
4 Hydrogen Research, Development, Demonstration, and Market Deployment Activities 59
Jochen Linssen and Jürgen-Friedrich Hake
4.1 Introduction 59
4.2 Germany 60
4.3 Norway 65
4.4 European Union 68
4.5 Canada 70
4.6 United States of America 76
4.7 Japan 78
4.8 International Networks 80
Part 2.2 Thermochemical Hydrogen Production 85
5 Thermochemical Hydrogen Production – Solar Thermal Water Decomposition 87
Christian Sattler, Nathalie Monnerie, Martin Roeb, and Matthias Lange
5.1 Introduction 87
5.2 Historical Development 88
5.3 Present State of Work 89
5.4 Conclusion and Outlook 102
6 Supercritical Water Gasification for Biomass-Based Hydrogen Production 109
Andrea Kruse
6.1 Introduction 109
6.2 Model Compounds 113
6.3 Biomass 116
6.4 Catalysts 119
6.5 Challenges 119
6.6 Scale-Up and Technical Application 122
6.7 New Developments 122
6.8 Conclusion 123
7 Thermochemical Hydrogen Production – Plasma-Based Production of Hydrogen from Hydrocarbons 131
Abdullah Aitani, Shakeel Ahmed, and Fahad Al-Muhaish
7.1 Introduction 131
7.2 Non-thermal Plasma 132
7.3 Thermal Plasma 144
7.4 Concluding Remarks 146
8 Solar Thermal Reforming 151
Christos Agrafiotis, Henrik von Storch, Martin Roeb, and Christian Sattler
8.1 Introduction 151
8.2 Hydrogen Production via Methane Reforming 152
8.3 Solar-Aided Methane Reforming 154
8.4 Current Development Status and Future Prospects 167
9 Fuel Processing for Utilization in Fuel Cells 173
Ralf Peters
9.1 Introduction 173
9.2 Scope of the Work and Methodical Approach 174
9.3 Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 175
9.4 Unit Operations 180
9.5 Subsystems of Fuel Processing 192
9.6 Conclusion 208
10 Small-Scale Reforming for On-Site Hydrogen Supply 217
Ingrid Schjølberg, Christian Hulteberg, and Dick Lieftink
10.1 Introduction 217
10.2 Definition 218
10.3 Reforming Technologies 219
10.4 Feedstock Options 223
10.5 Suppliers and Products 225
10.6 Emerging Technologies 228
10.7 Process Control 232
10.8 Safety 234
10.9 Conclusion 235
11 Industrial Hydrogen Production from Hydrocarbon Fuels and Biomass 237
Andreas Jess and Peter Wasserscheid
11.1 Options to Produce Hydrogen from Fuels–An Overview 237
11.2 Hydrogen Production from Solid Fuels (Coal, Biomass) 242
11.3 Syngas by Partial Oxidation of Heavy Oils 244
11.4 Syngas by Steam Reforming of Natural Gas 246
11.5 Conclusions 249
Part 2.3 H2 from Electricity 253
12 Electrolysis Systems for Grid Relieving 255
Filip Smeets and Jan Vaes
12.1 Introduction 255
12.2 Energy Policies around the Globe Drive Demand for Energy Storage 256
12.3 The Options for Integration of Intermittent Renewable Energy Sources 261
12.4 The Evolution of the Demand for Energy Storage 268
12.5 The Role of Electrolyzers in the Energy Transition 270
12.6 The Overall Business Case and Outlook 274
12.7 Conclusions 278
13 Status and Prospects of Alkaline Electrolysis 283
Dongke Zhang and Kai Zeng
13.1 Introduction 283
13.2 Thermodynamic Consideration 285
13.3 Electrode Kinetics 287
13.4 Electrical and Transport Resistances 292
13.5 Research Trends 297
13.6 Summary 303
14 Dynamic Operation of Electrolyzers – Systems Design and Operating Strategies 309
Geert Tjarks, Jürgen Mergel, and Detlef Stolten
14.1 Introduction 309
14.2 Process Steps and System Components 310
14.3 Dynamic Operation of Electrolyzers 317
14.4 System Design Criterion 322
14.5 Conclusion 327
15 Stack Technology for PEM Electrolysis 331
Jürgen Mergel, David L. Fritz, and Marcelo Carmo
15.1 Introduction to Electrolysis 331
15.2 General Principles of PEM Electrolysis 335
15.3 Summary 355
16 Reversible Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Technology for Hydrogen/Syngas and Power Production 359
Nguyen Q. Minh
16.1 Introduction 359
16.2 Reversible Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Overview 359
16.3 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Technology 366
16.4 Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cell Technology 372
16.5 Reversible Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Technology 379
16.6 Summary 383
Part 2.4 H2 from Biomass 391
17 Assessment of Selected Concepts for Hydrogen Production Based on Biomass 393
Franziska Müller-Langer, Konstantin Zech, Stefan Rönsch, Katja Oehmichen, Julia Michaelis, Simon Funke, and Elias Grasemann
17.1 Introduction 393
17.2 Characteristics of Selected Hydrogen Concepts 394
17.3 Concept Assessment of Technical Aspects 401
17.4 Concept Assessment of Environmental Aspects 402
17.5 Concept Assessment of Economic Aspects 406
17.6 Summary 411
18 Hydrogen from Biomass – Production Process via Fermentation 417
Balachandar G., Shantonu Roy, and Debabrata Das
18.1 Introduction 417
18.2 Hydrogen Production from Biomass as Feedstock 422
18.3 Reactor Configurations and Scale-Up Challenges 427
18.4 Economics and Barriers 430
18.5 Future Prospects 431
18.6 Conclusion 431
Part 2.5 Hydrogen from Solar Radiation and Algae 439
19 Photoelectrochemical Water Decomposition 441
Sebastian Fiechter
19.1 Introduction 441
19.2 Principles of Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting 442
19.3 Design of Water Splitting Devices 448
19.4 Nano- and Microstructured Photoelectrodes 455
19.5 Economic Aspects 457
19.6 Concluding Remarks 457
20 Current Insights to Enhance Hydrogen Production by Photosynthetic Organisms 461
Roshan Sharma Poudyal, Indira Tiwari, Mohammad Mahdi Najafpour, Dmitry A. Los, Robert Carpentier, Jian-Ren Shen, and Suleyman I. Allakhverdiev
20.1 Introduction 461
20.2 Biological H2 Production 463
20.3 Physiology and Biochemistry of Algae and Cyanobacteria for H2 Production 465
20.4 Hydrogenase and Nitrogenase for H2 Production 466
20.5 Photosystems and H2 Production 469
20.6 Factors Affecting Hydrogen Production 470
20.7 Designing the Photosynthetic H2 Production 471
20.8 Leaf and Solar H2 Production 472
20.9 Biofuel and Hydrogen Production by Other Organisms 473
20.10 Available Methods to Enhance Photosynthetic Hydrogen Production 474
20.11 Application of Biohydrogen 477
20.12 Conclusion and Future Prospectus 477
Part 2.6 Gas Clean-up Technologies 489
21 PSA Technology for H2 Separation 491
Carlos A. Grande
21.1 Introduction 491
21.2 Basics of PSA Technology 492
21.3 Selective Adsorbents; Commercial and New Materials 499
21.4 Improving the PSA Cycle 501
21.5 Summary 503
22 Hydrogen Separation with Polymeric Membranes 509
Torsten Brinkmann and Sergey Shishatskiy
22.1 History 509
22.2 Basics of Membrane Gas Separation 510
22.3 Hydrogen Separation and Fractionation by Gas Permeation 516
22.4 Membrane Materials and Modules 519
22.5 Process Examples 531
22.6 Conclusions 535
23 Gas Clean-up for Fuel Cell Systems – Requirements & Technologies 543
Matthias Gaderer, Stephan Herrmann, and Sebastian Fendt
23.1 Introduction 543
23.2 Background 543
23.3 Fuel and Pollutants 545
23.4 Pollutant Level Requirements 550
23.5 Technologies to Remove Pollutants 551
Volume 2
Part 3 Hydrogen for Storage of Renewable Energy 563
24 Physics of Hydrogen 565
Carsten Korte, Tabea Mandt, and Timm Bergholz
24.1 Introduction 565
24.2 Molecular Hydrogen 565
24.3 Hydrides 588
24.3.3 Clathrates 597
25 Thermodynamics of Pressurized Gas Storage 601
Vanessa Tietze and Detlef Stolten
25.1 Introduction 601
25.2 Calculation of Thermodynamic State Variables 602
25.3 Comparison of Thermodynamic Properties 606
25.4 Thermodynamic Analysis of Compression and Expansion Processes 610
25.5 Thermodynamic Modeling of the Storage Process 617
25.6 Application Examples 620
25.7 Conclusion 624
26 Geologic Storage of Hydrogen – Fundamentals, Processing, and Projects 629
Axel Liebscher, Jürgen Wackerl, and Martin Streibel
26.1 Introduction 629
26.2 Fundamental Aspects of Geological Hydrogen Storage 631
26.3 Process Engineering 642
26.4 Experiences from Storage Projects 649
26.5 Concluding Remarks 654
27 Bulk Storage Vessels for Compressed and Liquid Hydrogen 659
Vanessa Tietze, Sebastian Luhr, and Detlef Stolten
27.1 Introduction 659
27.2 Stationary Application Areas and Requirements 660
27.3 Storage Parameters 661
27.4 Compressed Hydrogen Storage 662
27.5 Cryogenic Liquid Hydrogen Storage 670
27.6 Cost Estimates and Economic Targets 675
27.7 Technical Assessment 678
27.8 Conclusion 683
28 Hydrogen Storage in Vehicles 691
Jens Franzen, Steffen Maus, and Peter Potzel
28.1 Introduction: Requirements for Hydrogen Storage in Vehicles 691
28.2 Advantages of Pressurized Storage over Other Storage Methods 693
28.3 Design of a Tank System 695
28.4 Specific Requirements for Compressed Gas Systems for Vehicles 699
28.5 Special Forms of Compressed Gas Storage 704
28.6 Conclusion 707
29 Cryo-compressed Hydrogen Storage 711
Tobias Brunner and Oliver Kircher
29.1 Motivation for Cryo-compressed Hydrogen Vehicle Storage 711
29.2 Thermodynamic Opportunities 714
29.3 Refueling and Infrastructure Perspectives 717
29.4 Design and Operating Principles 719
29.5 Validation Challenges of Cryo-compressed Hydrogen Vehicle Storage 725
29.6 Summary 731
30 Hydrogen Liquefaction 733
Alexander Alekseev
30.1 Introduction 733
30.2 History of Hydrogen Liquefaction 734
30.3 Hydrogen Properties at Low Temperature 735
30.4 Principles of Hydrogen Liquefaction 739
30.5 Key Hardware Components 751
30.5.2 Expansion Turbine (or Expander or Turbine) 755
30.6 Outlook 760
31 Hydrogen Storage by Reversible Metal Hydride Formation 763
Ping Chen, Etsuo Akiba, Shin-ichi Orimo, Andreas Zuettel, and Louis Schlapbach
31.1 Introduction 763
31.2 Summary of Energy Relevant Properties of Hydrogen and its Isotopes 764
31.3 Hydrogen Interaction with Metals, Alloys and Other Inorganic Solids 764
31.4 Hydrogen Storage in Intermetallic Compounds 767
31.5 Hydrogen Storage in Complex Hydrides 773
31.6 Physisorption and High Open-Porosity Structures for Molecular Hydrogen Storage 781
31.7 Other Energy Relevant Applications of Hydrogen Interacting Materials 784
31.8 Conclusions and Outlook 785
32 Implementing Hydrogen Storage Based on Metal Hydrides 791
R.K. Ahluwalia, J.-K. Peng, and T.Q. Hua
32.1 Introduction 791
32.2 Material Requirements 792
32.3 Reverse Engineering: A Case Study 800
32.4 Summary and Conclusions 807
33 Transport and Storage of Hydrogen via Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carrier (LOHC) Systems 811
Daniel Teichmann, Wolfgang Arlt, Eberhard Schlücker, and Peter Wasserscheid
33.1 Hydrogen Storage and Transport for Managing Unsteady Renewable Energy Production 811
33.2 Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carrier (LOHC) Systems 814
33.3 Development of LOHC-Based Energy Storage Systems 819
33.4 Applications of LOHC-Based Energy Storage Systems 822
33.5 Conclusions 828
Part 4 Traded Hydrogen 831
34 Economics of Hydrogen for Transportation 833
Akiteru Maruta
34.1 Introduction 833
34.2 Hydrogen Transportation System 833
34.3 Economics of Hydrogen for Transportation 836
34.4 Conclusion 845
35 Challenges and Opportunities of Hydrogen Delivery via Pipeline, Tube-Trailer, LIQUID Tanker and Methanation-Natural Gas Grid 849
Krishna Reddi, Marianne Mintz, Amgad Elgowainy, and Erika Sutherland
35.1 Introduction 849
35.2 Variation in Demand for Hydrogen 850
35.3 Refueling Station Components and Layout 852
35.4 Distributed Production of Hydrogen 856
35.5 Central or Semi-central Production of Hydrogen 857
35.6 Power-to-Gas Mass Energy Solution (Methanation) 866
35.7 Outlook and Summary 870
36 Pipelines for Hydrogen Distribution 875
Sabine Sievers and Dennis Krieg
36.1 Introduction 875
36.2 Overview 875
36.3 Brief Summary of Pipeline Construction 879
36.4 Operation of an H2 Pipeline 886
36.5 Decommissioning/Dismantling/Reclassification 888
36.6 Conclusion 888
37 Refueling Station Layout 891
Patrick Schnell
37.1 Introduction 891
37.2 Basic Requirements for a Hydrogen Refueling Station 892
37.3 Technical Concepts for Hydrogen Filling Stations 895
37.4 Challenges 907
37.5 Conclusion 913
Part 5 Handling of Hydrogen 917
38 Regulations and Codes and Standards for the Approval of Hydrogen Refueling Stations 919
Reinhold Wurster
38.1 Introduction 919
38.2 European Union and Germany 924
39 Safe Handling of Hydrogen 933
William Hoagland
39.1 Introduction 933
39.2 Hydrogen Safety and the Elements of Risk 934
39.3 The Unique, Safety-Related Properties of Hydrogen 937
39.4 General Considerations for the Safe Handling of Hydrogen 938
39.5 Regulations, Codes, and Standards 940
39.6 International Collaborations to Prioritize Hydrogen Safety Research 942
39.7 Current Directions in Hydrogen Safety Research [6] 943
39.8 Summary 947
Part 6 Existing and Emerging Systems 949
40 Hydrogen in Space Applications 951
Jérôme Lacapere
40.1 Liquid Hydrogen for Access to Space 951
40.2 To Go Beyond GTO 954
40.3 Relevant Tests in Low Gravity Environment 958
40.4 In-Space Propulsion 960
40.5 Conclusion 961
41 Transportation/Propulsion/Demonstration/Buses: The Design of the Fuel Cell Powertrain for Urban Transportation Applications (Daimler) 965
Wolfram Fleck
41.1 Introduction 965
41.2 Operational Environment 966
41.3 Requirements 967
41.4 Design Solutions 973
41.5 Test and Field Experience 982
41.6 Future Outlook 986
42 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in Submarines 991
Stefan Krummrich and Albert Hammerschmidt
42.1 Background 991
42.2 The HDW Fuel Cell AIP System 992
42.3 PEM Fuel Cells for Submarines 993
42.4 Hydrogen Storage 1002
42.5 The Usage of Pure Oxygen 1004
42.6 System Technology – Differences Between HDW Class 212A and Class 214 Submarines 1005
42.7 Safety Concept 1006
42.8 Developments for the Future – Methanol Reformer for Submarines 1006
42.9 Conclusion 1009
43 Gas Turbines and Hydrogen 1011
Peter Griebel
43.1 Introduction 1011
43.2 Combustion Fundamentals of Hydrogen relevant for Gas Turbines 1012
43.3 State-of-the-art Gas Turbine Technology for Hydrogen 1019
43.4 Research and Development Status, New Combustion Technologies 1022
43.5 Concluding Remarks 1028
44 Hydrogen Hybrid Power Plant in Prenzlau, Brandenburg 1033
Ulrich R. Fischer, Hans-Joachim Krautz, Michael Wenske, Daniel Tannert, Perco Krüger, and Christian Ziems
44.1 Introduction 1033
44.2 Description of the Concept of the Hybrid Power Plant at Prenzlau 1035
44.3 Operating Modes of the Hybrid Power Plant 1042
44.4 Operational Management and Experiences 1045
44.5 Outlook 1050
45 Wind Energy and Hydrogen Integration Projects in Spain 1053
Luis Correas, Jesús Simón, and Milagros Rey
45.1 Introduction 1053
45.2 The Role of Hydrogen in Wind Electricity Generation 1055
45.3 Description of Wind–Hydrogen Projects 1059
45.4 Operation Strategies Tested in the Sotavento Project 1066
45.5 Conclusions 1071
46 Hydrogen Islands – Utilization of Renewable Energy for an Autonomous Power Supply 1075
Frano Barbir
46.1 Introduction 1075
46.2 Existing Hydrogen Projects on Islands 1077
46.3 System Design/Configuration 1082
46.4 Key Technologies 1083
46.5 System Issues 1087
46.6 Sizing 1088
46.7 Energy Management 1090
46.8 Other Uses/System Configurations 1092
46.9 Conclusions 1093
References 1094
Index 1097
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