Interferometry and Synthesis in Radio Astronomy

, by Thompson, A. Richard; Moran, James M.; Swenson, George W.

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ISBN: 9780471254928 | 0471254924
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 4/25/2001

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Summary

Author Biography

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Interferometry and Synthesis in Radio Astronomy, Second Edition is comprehensive in that it provides an excellent overview of most radio astronomical instrumentation and techniques.

Preface to the Second Edition

xix

Preface to the First Edition

xxi

Introduction and Historical Review

(49)

Applications of Radio Interferometry

(2)

Basic Terms and Definitions

(9)

Cosmic Signals

(6)

Source Positions and Nomenclature

(1)

Reception of Cosmic Signals

(2)

Development of Radio Interferometry

(27)

Evolution of Synthesis Techniques

(1)

Michelson Interferometer

(3)

Early Two-Element Radio Interferometers

(2)

Sea Interferometer

(1)

Phase-Switching Interferometer

(3)

Optical Identifications and Calibration Sources

(1)

Early Measurements of Angular Width

(3)

Survey Interferometers and the Mills Cross

(2)

Centimeter-Wavelength Solar Mapping

(1)

Measurements of Intensity Profiles

(1)

Spectral Line Interferometry

(1)

Earth-Rotation Synthesis Mapping

(3)

Development of Synthesis Arrays

(2)

Very-Long-Baseline Interferometry

(4)

VLBI Using Orbiting Antennas

(2)

Quantum Effect

(11)

Introductory Theory of Interferometry and Synthesis Imaging

(18)

Planar Analysis

(3)

Effect of Bandwidth

(4)

One-Dimensional Source Synthesis

(7)

Interferometer Response as a Convolution

(2)

Convolution Theorem and Spatial Frequency

(1)

Example of One-Dimensional Synthesis

(3)

Two-Dimensional Synthesis

(4)

Projection-Slice theorem

(3)

Analysis of the Interferometer Response

(18)

Fourier Transform Relationship between Intensity and Visibility

(9)

Cross-Correlation and the Wiener---Khinchin Relation

(1)

Basic Response of the Receiving System

(8)

Antennas

(1)

Filters

(1)

Correlator

(1)

Response to the Incident Radiation

(2)

Mathematical Representation on Noise-Like Signals

(1)

Analytic Signal

(2)

Truncated Function

(2)

Geometric Relationships and Polarimetry

(36)

Antenna Spacing Coordinates and (u, v) Loci

(4)

(u', v') Plane

(1)

Fringe Frequency

(1)

Visibility Frequencies

(1)

Calibration of the Baseline

(1)

Antenna Mounts

(2)

Beamwidth and Beam-Shape Effects

(1)

Polarimetry

(25)

Parameters Defining Polarization

(2)

Antenna Polarization Ellipse

(3)

Stokes Visibilities

102

(3)

Instrumental Polarization

105

(4)

Matrix Formulation

109

(3)

Calibration of Instrumental Polarization

112

(5)

Conversion Between Hour Angle--Declination and Azimuth--Elevation Coordinates

117

(1)

Leakage Parameters in Terms of the Polarization Ellipse

117

(1)

Linear Polarization

118

(1)

Circular Polarization

119

(3)

Antennas and Arrays

122

(46)

Antennas

122

(4)

Sampling the Visibility Function

126

(3)

Sampling Theorem

126

(2)

Discrete Two-Dimensional Fourier Transform

128

(1)

Introductory Discussion of Arrays

129

(9)

Phased Arrays and Correlator Arrays

129

(3)

Spatial Sensitivity and the Spatial Transfer Function

132

(5)

Meter-Wavelength Cross and T Arrays

137

(1)

Spatial Transfer Function of a Tracking Array

138

(4)

Desirable Characteristics of the Spatial Transfer Function

140

(1)

Holes in the Spatial Frequency Coverage

141

(1)

Linear Tracking Arrays

142

(5)

Two-Dimensional Tracking Arrays

147

(14)

Open-Ended Configurations

148

(2)

Closed Configurations

150

(5)

VLBI Configurations

155

(3)

Orbiting VLBI Antennas

158

(1)

Planar Arrays

159

(2)

Conclusions on antenna Configurations

161

(1)

Other Considerations

162

(6)

Sensitivity

162

(1)

Long Wavelengths

163

(1)

Millimeter Wavelengths

163

(5)

Response of the Receiving System

168

(44)

Frequency Conversion, Fringe Rotation, and Complex Correlators

168

(15)

Frequency Conversion

168

(1)

Response of a Single-Sideband System

169

(2)

Upper-Sideband Reception

171

(1)

Lower-Sideband Reception

172

(1)

Multiple Frequency Conversions

173

(1)

Delay Tracking and Fringe Rotation

173

(1)

Simple and Complex Correlators

174

(1)

Response of a Double-Sideband System

175

(3)

Double-Sideband System with Multiple Frequency Conversions

178

(2)

Fringe Stopping in a Double-Sideband System

180

(1)

Relative Advantages of Double- and Single-Sideband Systems

181

(1)

Sideband Separation

181

(2)

Response to the Noise

183

(16)

Signal and Noise Processing in the Correlator

183

(5)

Noise in the Measurement of Complex Visibility

188

(1)

Signal-to-Noise Ratio in a Synthesized Map

189

(3)

Noise in Visibility Amplitude and Phase

192

(1)

Relative Sensitivities of Different Interferometer Systems

193

(6)

System Temperature Parameter α

199

(1)

Effect of Bandwidth

199

(6)

Mapping in the Continuum Mode

200

(4)

Wide-Field Mapping with a Multichannel System

204

(1)

Effect of Visibility Averaging

205

(7)

Visibility Averaging Time

205

(1)

Effect of Time Averaging

206

(2)

Partial Rejection of a Sideband

208

(4)

Design of the Analog Receiving System

212

(42)

Principal Subsystems of the Receiving Electronics

212

(9)

Low-Noise Input Stages

212

(2)

Noise Temperature Measurement

214

(3)

Local Oscillator

217

(1)

IF and Signal Transmission Subsystems

218

(1)

Optical Fiber Transmission

218

(2)

Delay and Correlator Subsystems

220

(1)

Local Oscillator and General Considerations of Phase Stability

221

(12)

Round-Trip Phase Measuring Schemes

221

(1)

Swarup and Yang System

222

(1)

Frequency-Offset Round-Trip System

223

(5)

Automatically Correcting System

228

(1)

Fiberoptic Transmission of LO Signals

229

(1)

Phase-Locked Loops and Reference Frequencies

230

(2)

Phase Stability of Filters

232

(1)

Effect of Phase Errors

233

(1)

Frequency Responses of the Signal Channels

233

(7)

Optimum Response

233

(2)

Tolerances on Variation of the Frequency Response: Degradation of Sensitivity

235

(1)

Tolerances on Variation of the Frequency Response: Gain Errors

235

(3)

Delay-Setting Tolerances

238

(1)

Implementation of Bandpass Tolerances

239

(1)

Polarization Mismatch Errors

240

(1)

Phase Switching

240

(8)

Reduction of Response to Spurious Signals

240

(1)

Implementation of Phase Switching

241

(5)

Interaction of Phase Switching with Fringe Rotation and Delay adjustment

246

(2)

Automatic Level Control and Gain Calibration

248

(6)

Sideband-Separating Mixer

248

(1)

Dispersion in Optical Fiber

249

(5)

Digital Signal Processing

254

(50)

Bivariate Gaussian Probability Distribution

255

(1)

Periodic Sampling

256

(4)

Nyquist Rate

256

(1)

Correlation of Sampled but Unquantized Waveforms

257

(3)

Sampling with Quantization

260

(18)

Two-Level Quantization

261

(3)

Four-Level Quantization

264

(7)

Three-Level Quantization

271

(2)

Quantization with Eight or More Levels

273

(3)

Quantization Correction

276

(1)

Comparision of Quantization Schemes

277

(1)

System Sensitivity

278

(1)

Accuracy in Digital Sampling

278

(4)

Principal Causes of Error

278

(1)

Tolerances in Three-Level Sampling

279

(3)

Digital Delay Circuits

282

(1)

Quadrature Phase Shift of a Digital Signal

283

(1)

Digital Correlators

283

(21)

Correlators for Continuum Observations

283

(1)

Principles of digital Spectral Measurements

284

(5)

Lag (XF) Correlator

289

(1)

FX Correlator

290

(3)

Comparison of Lag and FX Correlators

293

(4)

Hybrid Correlator

297

(1)

Demultiplexing in Broadband Correlators

297

(1)

Evaluation of Σ∞q=1 R2∞(qτs)

298

(1)

Probability Integral for Two-Level Quantization

299

(1)

Correction for Four-Level Quantization

300

(4)

Very-Long-Baseline Interferometry

304

(79)

Early Development

304

(2)

Differences Between VLBI and Conventional Interferometry

306

(2)

Basic Performance of a VLBI System

308

(18)

Time and Frequency Errors

308

(7)

Retarded Baselines

315

(1)

Noise in VLBI Observations

316

(3)

Probability of Error in the Signal Search

319

(4)

Coherent and Incoherent Averaging

323

(3)

Fringe Fitting for a Multielement Array

326

(6)

Global Fringe Fitting

326

(3)

Relative Performance of Fringe Detection Methods

329

(1)

Triple Product, or Bispectrum

330

(1)

Fringe Searching with a Multielement Array

331

(1)

Multielement Array with Incoherent Averaging

331

(1)

Phase Stability and Atomic Frequency Standards

332

(21)

Analysis of Phase Fluctuations

332

(8)

Oscillator coherence Time

340

(2)

Precise Frequency Standards

342

(4)

Rubidum and Cesium Standards

346

(2)

Hydrogen Maser Frequency Standards

348

(3)

Local Oscillator Stability

351

(1)

Phase Calibration System

352

(1)

Time Synchronization

353

(1)

Recording Systems

353

(4)

Processing Systems and Algorithms

357

(9)

Fringe Rotation Loss (nR)

358

(3)

Fringe Sideband Rejection Loss (nS)

361

(2)

Discrete Delay Step Loss (nD)

363

(2)

Summary of Processing Losses

365

(1)

Bandwidth Synthesis

366

(3)

Burst Mode Observing

368

(1)

Phased arrays as VLBI Elements

369

(4)

Orbiting VLBI (OVLBI)

373

(10)

Calibration and Fourier Transformation of Visibility Data

383

(43)

Calibration of the Visibility

383

(4)

Corrections for Calculable or Directly Monitored Effects

384

(1)

Use of Calibration Sources

385

(2)

Derivation of Intensity from Visibility

387

(12)

Mapping by Direct Fourier Transformation

387

(1)

Weighting of the Visibility Data

388

(5)

Mapping by Discrete Fourier Transformation

393

(1)

Convolving Functions and Aliasing

394

(4)

Aliasing and the Signal-to-Noise Ratio

398

(1)

Closure Relationships

399

(2)

Model Fitting

401

(3)

Basic Considerations for Models

402

(2)

Cosmic Background Anisotropy

404

(1)

Spectral Line Observations

404

(7)

General Considerations

404

(2)

VLBI Observations of Spectral Lines

406

(3)

Variation of Spatial Frequency over the Bandwidth

409

(1)

Accuracy of Spectral Line Measurements

409

(1)

Presentation and Analysis of Spectral Line Observations

410

(1)

Miscellaneous Considerations

411

(15)

Interpretation of Measured Intensity

411

(1)

Errors in Maps

412

(1)

Hints on Planning and Reduction of Observations

413

(1)

The Edge of the Moon as a Calibration Source

414

(3)

Doppler Shift of Spectral Lines

417

(4)

Historical Notes

421

(1)

Maps from One-Dimensional Profiles

421

(1)

Analog Fourier Transformation

422

(4)

Deconvolution, Adaptive Calibration, and Applications

426

(41)

Limitation of Spatial Frequency Coverage

426

(1)

The Clean Deconvolution Algorithm

427

(5)

Clean Algorithm

427

(2)

Implementation and Performance of the Clean Algorithm

429

(3)

Maximum Entropy Method

432

(6)

Mem Algorithm

432

(2)

Comparison of Clean and Mem

434

(1)

Other Deconvolution Procedures

435

(3)

Adaptive Calibration and Mapping With Amplitude Data Only

438

(7)

Hybrid Mapping

438

(2)

Self-Calibration

440

(4)

Mapping with Visibility Amplitude Data Only

444

(1)

Mapping With High Dynamic Range

445

(1)

Mosaicking

446

(7)

Methods of Producing the Mosaic Map

449

(2)

Some Requirements of Arrays for Mosaicking

451

(2)

Multifrequency Synthesis

453

(1)

Non-Coplanar Baselines

454

(5)

Further Special Cases of Image Analysis

459

(8)

Use of Clean and Self-Calibration with Spectral Line Data

459

(1)

Low-Frequency Mapping

459

(2)

Lensclean

461

(6)

Interferometer Techniques for Astrometry and Geodesy

467

(40)

Requirements for Astrometry

467

(3)

References Frames

469

(1)

Solution for Baseline and Source-Position Vectors

470

(10)

Connected-Element Systems

470

(2)

Measurements with VLBI Systems

472

(4)

Phase Referencing in VLBI

476

(4)

Time and the Motion of the Earth

480

(5)

Precession and Nutation

481

(1)

Polar Motion

482

(1)

Universal Time

482

(2)

Measurement of Polar Motion and UT1

484

(1)

Geodetic Measurements

485

(1)

Mapping Astronomical Masters

485

(22)

Least-Mean-Squares Analysis

490

(17)

Propagation Effects

507

(87)

Neutral Atmosphere

508

(35)

Basic Physics

508

(5)

Refraction and Propagation Delay

513

(5)

Absorption

518

(6)

Origin of Refraction

524

(4)

Smith--Weintraub Equation

528

(2)

Phase Fluctuations

530

(4)

Kolmogorov Turbulence

534

(5)

Anomalous Refraction

539

(2)

Water Vapor Radiometry

541

(2)

Atmospheric Effects at Millimeter Wavelengths

543

(11)

Site Testing by Opacity Measurement

543

(3)

Site Testing by Direct Measurement of Phase Stability

546

(4)

Reduction of Atmospheric Phase Error by Calibration

550

(4)

Ionosphere

554

(10)

Basic Physics

555

(4)

Refraction and Propagation Delay

559

(1)

Calibration of Ionospheric Delay

560

(2)

Absorption

562

(1)

Small- and Large-Scale Irregularities

562

(2)

Scattering Caused by Plasma Irregularities

564

(7)

Gaussian Screen Model

564

(5)

Power-Law Model

569

(2)

Interplanetary Medium

571

(5)

Refraction

571

(3)

Interplanetary Scintillation

574

(2)

Interstellar Medium

576

(18)

Dispersion and Faraday Rotation

576

(3)

Diffractive Scattering

579

(1)

Refractive Scattering

580

(14)

Van Cittert--Zernike Theorem, Spatial Coherence, and Scattering

594

(19)

Van Cittert--Zernike theorem

594

(8)

Mutual Coherence of an Incoherent Source

596

(1)

Diffraction at an Aperture and the Response of an Antenna

597

(3)

Assumptions in the Derivation and Application of the Van Cittert--Zernike Theorem

600

(2)

Spatial Coherence

602

(5)

Incident Field

602

(1)

Source Coherence

603

(3)

Completely Coherent Source

606

(1)

Scattering and the Propagation of Coherence

607

(6)

Radio Interference

613

(14)

General Considerations

613

(2)

Short- and Intermediate-Baseline Arrays

615

(6)

Fringe-Frequency Averaging

616

(4)

Decorrelation of Broadband Signals

620

(1)

Very-Long-Baseline Systems

621

(3)

Interference From Airborne and Space Transmitters

624

(3)

Regulation of the Radio Spectrum

625

(2)

Related Techniques

627

(28)

Intensity Interferometer

627

(5)

Lunar Occultation Observations

632

(4)

Measurements on Antennas

636

(5)

Optical Interferometry

641

(14)

Modern Michelson Interferometer

642

(2)

Sensitivity of Direct Detection and Heterodyne Systems

644

(2)

Optical Intensity Interferometer

646

(1)

Speckle Imaging

647

(8)

Principal Symbols

655

(12)

Author Index

667

(10)

Subject Index

677

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Interferometry and Synthesis in Radio Astronomy

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials