International Control of Tritium for Nuclear

Tritium is used by all nuclear weapons states to increase the explosive yield of atomic bombs and to miniaturize them. However, this radioactive material has not yet been put under appropriate international control comparable to the nuclear safeguards applied for plutonium and uranium. It is a neglected material in efforts to control the spread and further development of nuclear weapons.International Control of Tritium for Nuclear Non-Proliferation and Disarmament closes a gap in the literature on nuclear non-proliferation. It argues persuasively that a carefully designed tritium control would be beneficial both for non-proliferation of tritium as well as for encouraging disarmament, if implemented in combination with fissile materials controls. This book provides a unique resource on all aspects regarding the civilian and military use of tritium, and a survey of the production, occurrence, and availability of tritium in different types of nuclear facilities. Based on this information, the author presents an outline of procedures that could be used to verify the nondiversion of tritium as well as a technical assessment of an international tritium control agreement. In his conclusion, he shows that verification of control agreements would be technically feasible, politically acceptable, and would not add excessive inspection activities.With this well researched and convincing presentation, the author offers a thorough examination of an issue of global importance. His work will be of interest to nuclear scientists, engineers, and analysts, as well as journalists, think tanks, and military planners as they research and implement various nuclear systems and policies.

Foreword	p. xi
Preface	p. xiii
Dealing with the civilian/military ambivalence toward tritium	p. 1
Introduction	p. 1
Tritium and tritium technology	p. 2
The use of tritium	p. 5
Civilian uses of tritium	p. 5
Military uses of tritium	p. 8
Civilian/military ambivalence of tritium	p. 11
Current state of tritium control	p. 16
Tritium control at the facility level	p. 16
Tritium control at the national level	p. 17
Tritium control at the international level	p. 22
Rationale for international tritium control	p. 25
Reversing vertical proliferation by tritium control	p. 28
Tritium control and qualitative disarmament	p. 28
The relation of tritium and weight to yield of nuclear weapons	p. 30
Consequences of yield reduction by elimination of tritium	p. 33
Yield reduction by tritium elimination: possibilities for qualitative nuclear disarmament	p. 35
Horizontal nonproliferation of tritium	p. 39
Tritium-related activities in de facto nuclear weapons states	p. 39
International tritium control for nonproliferation	p. 41
Nondiscriminatory tritium control within a Fissile Material Treaty	p. 46
The role of tritium within a verified production cutoff for fissile materials	p. 46
The principle of reciprocity within a Fissile Material Treaty	p. 49
The "integrated cutoff" (ICO)	p. 52
Endnotes	p. 55
References	p. 63
Diversion path analysis	p. 71
Introduction	p. 71
Diversion path analysis as a method to derive control tasks	p. 71
Methodology of diversion path analysis	p. 71
Diversion strategies	p. 72
Safeguards development methodology	p. 73
Facility types and flow paths with relevance to tritium diversion	p. 73
Production paths	p. 76
Lithium-6 path	p. 76
Helium-3 path	p. 91
Boron path	p. 93
Tritiated water path	p. 94
Ternary fission path	p. 97
Removal path	p. 99
Removal from tritium-handling facilities	p. 99
Recovery of abandoned tritium and multisource acquisition	p. 100
Survey of worldwide civilian stocks and production capacities	p. 101
Nuclear reactors and special neutron sources (facility type 1)	p. 101
Fuel fabrication facilities (facility type 2)	p. 102
Separate storages for spent fuel (facility type 3)	p. 103
Reprocessing plants (facility type 4)	p. 103
Final disposal sites for nuclear waste (facility type 5)	p. 104
Detritiation facilities (facility type 6)	p. 104
Tritium storages and research facilities (facility type 7)	p. 105
Tritium industry (facility type 8)	p. 105
Summary and outlook	p. 108
Survey of worldwide military tritium production	p. 108
Conclusions on tritium diversion	p. 113
Assessment of diversion possibilities	p. 113
High civilian surplus meets military demand	p. 116
Endnotes	p. 117
References	p. 121
Verification of an international tritium control agreement	p. 127
Introduction	p. 127
Conceptual framework for verification	p. 128
Control goals and criteria	p. 128
Significant quantities	p. 130
Relevant time frames	p. 133
Verification of nonproduction	p. 134
Verification of production limitations	p. 134
Verification of inactivity of production facilities	p. 136
Detection of breeding activities	p. 137
Verification of inadvertent tritium production	p. 138
Verification of nonremoval	p. 139
Methodological background of tritium accountancy	p. 139
Uncertainty in baseline determination	p. 143
Measurement accuracy in inventory-taking	p. 144
Tritium sink analysis	p. 152
Conclusions on the efficiency of tritium accountancy	p. 156
Containment, surveillance, and physical protection	p. 158
Containment and surveillance	p. 158
Physical protection	p. 158
Detection of clandestine facilities and activities	p. 159
Control activities at different facility types	p. 162
Overview of relevant facilities worldwide	p. 162
Control activities	p. 163
Conclusions on verification	p. 173
Endnotes	p. 176
References	p. 183
Technical assessment of an international tritium control agreement	p. 189
Adequacy and appropriateness	p. 189
Nondiscrimination	p. 190
Feasibility and completeness	p. 190
Control effectiveness	p. 192
Minimum interferences with facility operation	p. 194
Minimum intrusiveness	p. 194
Synergies with other control procedures	p. 194
Costs	p. 196
Effects on civilian tritium uses	p. 197
Acceptability	p. 197
Conclusions	p. 197
Endnotes	p. 199
Acknowledgments	p. 201
World tritium facilities, inventories, and production capabilities	p. 203
Nuclear reactors and special neutron sources (facility type 1)	p. 204
Nuclear power reactors (facility type 1a,b)	p. 204
Nuclear research reactors (facility type 1c,d)	p. 208
Special neutron sources (facility type 1f)	p. 213
Fuel fabrication facilities (facility type 2)	p. 215
Separate spent fuel storage facilities (facility type 3)	p. 219
Reprocessing plants (facility type 4)	p. 220
Final disposal sites for nuclear waste (facility type 5)	p. 224
Detritiation facilities (facility type 6)	p. 228
Tritium research and storage facilities (facility type 7)	p. 229
Commercial tritium manufacturers and trade companies (facility type 8)	p. 231
References	p. 232
Abbreviations	p. 235
Subject index	p. 239
Table of Contents provided by Rittenhouse. All Rights Reserved.

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International Control of Tritium for Nuclear Nonproliferation and Disarmament

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