An Introduction to Atmospheric Radiation

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ISBN: 9780124514515 | 0124514510
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 4/29/2002

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This Second Edition of An Introduction to Atmospheric Radiation has been extensively revised to address the fundamental study and quantitative measurement of the interactions of solar and terrestrial radiation with molecules, aerosols, and cloud particles in planetary atmospheres. It contains 70% new material, much of it stemming from the investigation of the atmospheric greenhouse effects of external radiative perturbations in climate systems, and the development of methodologies for inferring atmospheric and surface parameters by means of remote sensing. Liou's comprehensive treatment of the fundamentals of atmospheric radiation was developed for students, academics, and researchers in atmospheric sciences, remote sensing, and climate modeling. Key Features *Balanced treatment of fundamentals and applications *Includes over 170 illustrations to complement the concise description of each subject *Numerous examples and hands-on exercises at the end of each chapter

Preface	p. xiii
Fundamentals of Radiation for Atmospheric Applications
Concepts, Definitions, and Units	p. 1
Electromagnetic Spectrum	p. 1
Solid Angle	p. 2
Basic Radiometric Quantities	p. 4
Concepts of Scattering and Absorption	p. 6
Blackbody Radiation Laws	p. 9
Planck's Law	p. 10
Stefan-Boltzmann Law	p. 11
Wien's Displacement Law	p. 12
Kirchhoff's Law	p. 13
Absorption Line Formation and Line Shape	p. 14
Line Formation	p. 14
Bohr's Model	p. 14
Vibrational and Rotational Transitions	p. 16
Line Broadening	p. 21
Pressure Broadening	p. 21
Doppler Broadening	p. 23
Voigt Profile	p. 24
Breakdown of Thermodynamic Equilibrium	p. 25
Introduction to Radiative Transfer	p. 27
The Equation of Radiative Transfer	p. 27
Beer-Bouguer-Lambert Law	p. 28
Schwarzschild's Equation and Its Solution	p. 29
The Equation of Radiative Transfer for Plane-Parallel Atmospheres	p. 31
Radiative Transfer Equations for Three-Dimensional Inhomogeneous Media	p. 33
Exercises	p. 34
Suggested Reading	p. 36
Solar Radiation at the Top of the Atmosphere
The Sun as an Energy Source	p. 37
The Structure of the Sun	p. 39
Solar Surface Activity: Sunspots	p. 41
The Earth's Orbit about the Sun and Solar Insolation	p. 44
Orbital Geometry	p. 44
Definition of the Solar Constant	p. 50
Distribution of Solar Insolation	p. 51
Solar Spectrum and Solar Constant Determination	p. 54
Solar Spectrum	p. 54
Determination of the Solar Constant: Ground-Based Method	p. 57
Satellite Measurements of the Solar Constant	p. 60
Exercises	p. 62
Suggested Reading	p. 64
Absorption and Scattering of Solar Radiation in the Atmosphere
Composition and Structure of the Earth's Atmosphere	p. 65
Thermal Structure	p. 65
Chemical Composition	p. 67
Atmospheric Absorption	p. 70
Absorption in the Ultraviolet	p. 73
Molecular Nitrogen	p. 73
Molecular Oxygen	p. 73
Ozone	p. 75
Other Minor Gases	p. 75
Absorption of Solar Radiation	p. 75
Photochemical Processes and the Formation of Ozone Layers	p. 79
Absorption in the Visible and Near Infrared	p. 82
Molecular Oxygen and Ozone	p. 82
Water Vapor	p. 83
Carbon Dioxide	p. 83
Other Minor Gases	p. 84
Transfer of Direct Solar Flux in the Atmosphere	p. 84
Atmospheric Scattering	p. 87
Rayleigh Scattering	p. 87
Theoretical Development	p. 87
Phase Function, Scattering Cross Section, and Polarizability	p. 90
Blue Sky and Sky Polarization	p. 93
Light Scattering by Particulates: Approximations	p. 96
Lorenz-Mie Scattering	p. 96
Geometric Optics	p. 97
Anomalous Diffraction Theory	p. 100
Multiple Scattering and Absorption in Planetary Atmospheres	p. 102
Fundamentals of Radiative Transfer	p. 102
Approximations of Radiative Transfer	p. 105
Single-Scattering Approximation	p. 105
Diffusion Approximation	p. 106
Atmospheric Solar Heating Rates	p. 107
Exercises	p. 111
Suggested Reading	p. 114
Thermal Infrared Radiation Transfer in the Atmosphere
The Thermal Infrared Spectrum and the Greenhouse Effect	p. 116
Absorption and Emission in the Atmosphere	p. 118
Absorption in the Thermal Infrared	p. 118
Water Vapor	p. 118
Carbon Dioxide	p. 119
Ozone	p. 120
Methane	p. 121
Nitrous Oxide	p. 121
Chlorofluorocarbons	p. 121
Fundamentals of Thermal Infrared Radiative Transfer	p. 122
Line-by-Line (LBL) Integration	p. 125
Correlated K-Distribution Method for Infrared Radiative Transfer	p. 127
Fundamentals	p. 127
Application to Nonhomogeneous Atmospheres	p. 128
Numerical Procedures and Pertinent Results	p. 132
Line Overlap Consideration	p. 135
Band Models	p. 137
A Single Line	p. 137
Regular Band Model	p. 139
Statistical Band Model	p. 141
Application to Nonhomogeneous Atmospheres	p. 144
Broadband Approaches to Flux Computations	p. 148
Broadband Emissivity	p. 148
Newtonian Cooling Approximation	p. 150
Infrared Radiative Transfer in Cloudy Atmospheres	p. 152
Fundamentals	p. 152
Exchange of Infrared Radiation between Cloud and Surface	p. 154
Two/Four-Stream Approximation	p. 157
Atmospheric Infrared Cooling Rates	p. 160
Exercises	p. 165
Suggested Reading	p. 168
Light Scattering by Atmospheric Particulates
Morphology of Atmospheric Particulates	p. 169
Lorenz-Mie Theory of Light Scattering by Spherical Particles	p. 176
Electromagnetic Wave Equation and Solution	p. 176
Formal Scattering Solution	p. 182
The Far-Field Solution and Extinction Parameters	p. 186
Scattering Phase Matrix for Spherical Particles	p. 191
Geometric Optics	p. 195
Diffraction	p. 196
Geometric Reflection and Refraction	p. 200
Geometric Optics, Lorenz-Mie Theory, and Representative Results	p. 209
Light Scattering by Ice Crystals: A Unified Theory	p. 215
Geometric Optics for Ice Crystals	p. 215
Conventional Approach	p. 215
Improved Geometric Optics Approach	p. 217
Absorption Effects in Geometric Optics	p. 219
Monte Carlo Method for Ray Tracing	p. 222
Introduction to the Finite-Difference Time Domain Method	p. 224
Scattering Phase Matrix for Nonspherical Ice Particles	p. 225
Presentation of a Unified Theory for Light Scattering by Ice Crystals	p. 228
The Essence of the Unified Theory	p. 228
Theory versus Measurement and Representative Results	p. 231
Light Scattering by Nonspherical Aerosols	p. 235
Finite-Difference Time Domain Method	p. 237
T-Matrix Method	p. 246
Note on Light-Scattering Measurements for Nonspherical Aerosols	p. 249
Exercises	p. 252
Suggested Reading	p. 255
Principles of Radiative Transfer in Planetary Atmospheres
Introduction	p. 257
A Brief History of Radiative Transfer	p. 257
Basic Equations for the Plane-Parallel Condition	p. 258
Discrete-Ordinates Method for Radiative Transfer	p. 261
General Solution for Isotropic Scattering	p. 262
The Law of Diffuse Reflection for Semi-infinite Isotropic Scattering Atmospheres	p. 265
General Solution for Anisotropic Scattering	p. 267
Application to Nonhomogeneous Atmospheres	p. 270
Principles of Invariance	p. 274
Definitions of Scattering Parameters	p. 274
Principles of Invariance for Semi-infinite Atmospheres	p. 277
Principles of Invariance for Finite Atmospheres	p. 280
The X and Y Functions	p. 285
Inclusion of Surface Reflection	p. 287
Adding Method for Radiative Transfer	p. 290
Definitions of Physical Parameters	p. 290
Adding Equations	p. 292
Equivalence of the Adding Method and the Principles of Invariance	p. 295
Extension to Nonhomogeneous Atmospheres for Internal Fields	p. 297
Similarity between the Adding and Discrete-Ordinates Methods	p. 299
Approximations for Radiative Transfer	p. 302
Successive-Orders-of-Scattering Approximation	p. 302
Two-Stream and Eddington's Approximations	p. 303
Delta-Function Adjustment and Similarity Principle	p. 310
Four-Stream Approximation	p. 313
Radiative Transfer Including Polarization	p. 317
Representation of a Light Beam	p. 317
Formulation	p. 322
Advanced Topics in Radiative Transfer	p. 325
Horizontally Oriented Ice Particles	p. 325
Three-Dimensional Nonhomogeneous Clouds	p. 329
Monte Carlo Method	p. 332
Successive-Orders-of-Scattering (SOS) Approach	p. 334
Delta Four-Term (Diffusion) Approximation	p. 337
Spherical Atmospheres	p. 339
Exercises	p. 343
Suggested Reading	p. 347
Application of Radiative Transfer Principles to Remote Sensing
Introduction	p. 348
Remote Sensing Using Transmitted Sunlight	p. 350
Determination of Aerosol Optical Depth and Size Distribution	p. 351
Direct Linear Inversion	p. 355
Constrained Linear Inversion	p. 357
Determination of Total Ozone Concentration	p. 358
Limb Extinction Technique	p. 360
Remote Sensing Using Reflected Sunlight	p. 361
Satellite-Sun Geometry and Theoretical Foundation	p. 361
Satellite Remote Sensing of Ozone	p. 366
Satellite Remote Sensing of Aerosols	p. 367
Satellite Remote Sensing of Land Surfaces	p. 369
Cloud Optical Depth and Particle Size	p. 370
Bidirectional Reflectance	p. 371
Polarization	p. 377
Reflected Line Spectrum	p. 379
Remote Sensing Using Emitted Infrared Radiation	p. 383
Theoretical Foundation	p. 383
Surface Temperature Determination	p. 385
Remote Sensing of Temperature Profiles	p. 387
Nonlinear Iteration Method	p. 391
Minimum Variance Method: Hybrid Retrieval	p. 392
Cloud Removal	p. 396
Remote Sensing of Water Vapor and Trace Gas Profiles	p. 398
Water Vapor from the 6.3 [mu]m Vibrational-Rotational Band	p. 398
Limb Scanning Technique	p. 399
Infrared Remote Sensing of Clouds	p. 403
Carbon Dioxide Slicing Technique for Cloud Top Pressure and Emissivity	p. 403
Emitted Radiance for Cloud Cover	p. 406
Retrieval of Cirrus Cloud Optical Depth and Temperature	p. 406
Information Content in Infrared Line Spectrum	p. 408
Remote Sensing of Infrared Cooling Rate and Surface Flux	p. 409
Remote Sensing Using Emitted Microwave Radiation	p. 414
Microwave Spectrum and Microwave Radiative Transfer	p. 414
Rainfall Rate and Water Vapor Determination from Microwave Emission	p. 419
Temperature Retrieval from Microwave Sounders	p. 423
Remote Sensing Using Laser and Microwave Energy	p. 427
Backscattering Equation: Theoretical Foundation	p. 427
Lidar Differential Absorption and Depolarization Techniques	p. 430
Differential Absorption Technique	p. 430
Principle of Depolarization	p. 431
Millimeter-Wave Radar for Cloud Study	p. 434
Exercises	p. 436
Suggested Reading	p. 441
Radiation and Climate
Introduction	p. 442
Radiation Budget of the Earth-Atmosphere System	p. 444
Observational Considerations	p. 444
Black and White Sensors Based on Radiative Equilibrium	p. 445
Scanning Radiometer and Angular Models	p. 447
Radiation Budget Viewed from Space	p. 449
Cloud Radiative Forcing Derived from ERB Data	p. 451
Radiative Heating/Cooling Rates of the Atmosphere	p. 454
Radiation Budget at the Surface	p. 458
Radiative and Convective Atmospheres	p. 459
Radiative Equilibrium	p. 459
A Global Model	p. 459
A Vertical Model	p. 462
Radiative and Convective Equilibrium	p. 464
Heat Budget of the Earth-Atmosphere System	p. 464
Convective Adjustment	p. 466
Radiation in One-Dimensional Climate Models	p. 469
Carbon Dioxide Greenhouse Effects	p. 469
Ozone and Other Greenhouse Gases	p. 472
Ozone	p. 472
Methane	p. 473
Nitrous Oxide	p. 474
Halocarbons	p. 475
Radiation Feedback Consideration	p. 475
Aerosols and Radiation	p. 477
Cloud Radiative Forcing	p. 480
Cloud Position and Cover	p. 480
Cloud Microphysics	p. 481
Aerosols/Clouds and Precipitation	p. 483
Radiation in Energy Balance Climate Models	p. 485
Energy Budget of the Atmosphere and the Surface	p. 485
Atmosphere and Oceans	p. 485
Surface Energy Budget	p. 489
Radiative Forcing in Energy Balance Climate Models	p. 491
Linear Heating Approach	p. 492
Diffusion Approach	p. 495
Solar Insolation Perturbation	p. 497
Radiation in Global Climate Models	p. 499
An Introduction to General Circulation Modeling	p. 499
Cloud Radiative Forcing in Global Climate Models	p. 503
Internal Radiative Forcing	p. 504
Greenhouse Warming and Cloud Cover Feedback	p. 505
Greenhouse Warming and Cloud Liquid/Ice Water Content Feedback	p. 507
Cloud Particle Size Feedback	p. 510
Direct Radiative Forcing: Aerosols and Contrails	p. 510
Aerosols	p. 511
Contrails	p. 513
Radiation in El Nino-Southern Oscillation	p. 514
Exercises	p. 516
Suggested Reading	p. 520
Derivation of the Planck Function	p. 523
The Schrodinger Wave Equation	p. 525
Spherical Geometry	p. 527
Complex Index of Refraction, Dispersion of Light, and Lorentz-Lorenz Formula	p. 529
Properties of the Legendre Polynomials and Addition Theorem	p. 533
Some Useful Constants	p. 536
Standard Atmospheric Profiles	p. 537
Answers to Selected Exercises	p. 538
References	p. 543
Index	p. 557
Previous Volumes in International Geophysics Series	p. 579
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