Introduction to Behavioral Research Methods

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ISBN: 9780205322046 | 0205322042
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 6/1/2000

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Taking into consideration the four basic approaches to behavioral research (descriptive research, correlational research, experimental research, and quasi-experimental research), "Introduction to Behavioral Research Methods" shows students how to conceptualize questions, measure variables, design studies, and analyze data.

Preface

xiii

Research in the Behavioral Sciences

(32)

The Beginnings of Behavioral Research

(2)

Goals of Behavioral Research

(2)

Describing Behavior

(1)

Explaining Behavior

(1)

Predicting Behavior

(1)

Solving Behavioral Problems

(1)

Four Goals or One?

(1)

The Value of Research to the Student

(1)

The Scientific Approach

(3)

Systematic Empiricism

(1)

Public Verification

(1)

Solvable Problems

(1)

Behavioral Science and Common Sense

(1)

Philosophy of Science

(2)

The Role of Theory in Science

(1)

Research Hypotheses

(2)

A Priori Predictions and Post Hoc Explanations

(1)

Conceptual and Operational Definitions

(3)

Proof and Disproof in Science

(4)

The Logical Impossibility of Proof

(1)

The Practical Impossibility of Disproof

(1)

If Not Proof or Disproof, Then What?

(3)

Strategies of Behavioral Research

(2)

Descriptive Research

(1)

Correlational Research

(1)

Experimental Research

(1)

Quasi-Experimental Research

(1)

Domains of Behavioral Science

(2)

A Preview

(1)

Summary

(5)

Behavioral Variability and Research

(20)

Variability and the Research Process

(3)

Variance: An Index of Variability

(5)

A Conceptual Explanation of Variance

(1)

A Statistical Explanation of Variance

(3)

Systematic and Error Variance

(4)

Systematic Variance

(1)

Error Variance

(2)

Distinguishing Systematic from Error Variance

(1)

Assessing the Strength of Relationships

(1)

Meta-Analysis: Systematic Variance Across Studies

(2)

Summary

(4)

The Measurement of Behavior

(24)

Types of Measures

(2)

Scales of Measurement

(1)

Estimating the Reliability of a Measure

(8)

Measurement Error

(1)

Reliability as Systematic Variance

(1)

Assessing Reliability

(4)

Increasing the Reliability of Measures

(1)

Estimating the Validity of a Measure

(6)

Assessing Validity

(6)

Fairness and Bias in Measurement

(2)

Summary

(4)

Approaches to Psychological Measurement

(27)

Observational Methods

(7)

Naturalistic Versus Contrived Settings

(2)

Disguised Versus Nondisguised Observation

(2)

Behavioral Recording

(3)

Increasing the Reliability of Observational Methods

(1)

Physiological Measures

(1)

Self-Report: Questionnaires and Interviews

(11)

Writing Questions

(5)

Questionnaires

(2)

Interviews

(1)

Advantages of Questionnaires Versus Interviews

(1)

Biases in Self-Report Measurement

(3)

Archival Data

(2)

Content Analysis

(1)

Summary

100

(4)

Descriptive Research

104

(32)

Types of Descriptive Research

105

(4)

Surveys

105

(2)

Demographic Research

107

(1)

Epidemiological Research

108

(1)

Summary

108

(1)

Sampling

109

(10)

Probability Samples

109

(7)

Nonprobability Samples

116

(3)

Describing and Presenting Data

119

(12)

Criteria of a Good Description

119

(1)

Frequency Distributions

120

(5)

Measures of Central Tendency

125

(1)

Measures of Variability

126

(1)

Standard Deviation and the Normal Curve

127

(3)

The z-Score

130

(1)

Summary

131

(5)

Correlational Research

136

(26)

The Correlation Coefficient

138

(1)

A Graphic Representation of Correlations

139

(3)

The Coefficient of Determination

142

(4)

Statistical Significance of r

146

(2)

Factors That Distort Correlation Coefficients

148

(4)

Restricted Range

148

(2)

Outliers

150

(2)

Reliability of Measures

152

(1)

Correlation and Causality

152

(3)

Partial Correlation

155

(1)

Other Correlation Coefficients

156

(1)

Summary

157

(5)

Advanced Correlational Strategies

162

(22)

Predicting Behavior: Regression Strategies

162

(9)

Linear Regression

163

(2)

Types of Multiple Regression

165

(5)

Multiple Correlation

170

(1)

Assessing Directionality: Cross-Lagged and Structural Equations Analysis

171

(4)

Cross-Lagged Panel Design

171

(1)

Structural Equations Modeling

172

(3)

Uncovering Underlying Dimensions: Factor Analysis

175

(4)

An Intuitive Approach

176

(1)

Basics of Factor Analysis

176

(2)

Uses of Factor Analysis

178

(1)

Summary

179

(5)

Basic Issues in Experimental Research

184

(34)

Manipulating the Independent Variable

186

(5)

Independent Variables

186

(4)

Dependent Variables

190

(1)

Assignment of Participants of Conditions

191

(6)

Simple Random Assignment

191

(1)

Matched Random Assignment

192

(1)

Repeated Measures Designs

193

(4)

Experimental Control

197

(3)

Systematic Variance

197

(1)

Error Variance

198

(1)

An Analogy

199

(1)

Eliminating Confounds

200

(8)

Internal Validity

200

(1)

Threats to Internal Validity

201

(4)

Experimenter Expectancies, Demand Characteristics, and Placebo Effects

205

(3)

Error Variance

208

(3)

Sources of Error Variance

208

(3)

Experimental Control and Generalizability: The Experimenter's Dilemma

211

(1)

Summary

212

(6)

Experimental Design

218

(25)

One-Way Designs

219

(5)

Assigning Participants to Conditions

220

(1)

Posttest and Pretest-Posttest Designs

221

(3)

Factorial Designs

224

(6)

Factorial Nomenclature

225

(3)

Assigning Participants to Conditions

228

(2)

Main Effects and Interactions

230

(5)

Main Effects

230

(1)

Interactions

231

(3)

Higher-Order Designs

234

(1)

Combining Independent and Subject Variables

235

(4)

Summary

239

(4)

Analyzing Experimental Data

243

(19)

An Intuitive Approach to Analysis

244

(2)

The Problem: Error Variance Can Cause Mean Differences

245

(1)

The Solution: Inferential Statistics

245

(1)

Hypothesis Testing

246

(4)

The Null Hypothesis

246

(1)

Type I and Type II Errors

247

(3)

Effect Size

250

(1)

Summary

250

(1)

Analysis of Two-Group Experiments: The t-Test

250

(6)

Conducting a t-Test

251

(4)

Back to the Droodles Experiment

255

(1)

Analyses of Matched-Subjects and Within-Subjects Designs

256

(1)

Summary

257

(5)

Analyzing Complex Designs

262

(20)

The Problem: Multiple Tests Inflate Type I Error

263

(1)

The Rationale Behind ANOVA

264

(1)

How ANOVA Works

265

(6)

Total Sum of Squares

265

(1)

Sum of Squares Within-Groups

266

(1)

Sum of Squares Between-Groups

267

(1)

The F-Test

267

(1)

Extension of ANOVA to Factorial Designs

268

(3)

Follow-Up Tests

271

(3)

Main Effects

271

(1)

Interactions

272

(2)

Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects ANOVAs

274

(1)

Multivariate Analysis of Variance

274

(3)

Conceptually Related Dependent Variables

275

(1)

Inflation of Type I Error

275

(1)

How MANOVA Works

276

(1)

Experimental and Nonexperimental Uses of Inferential Statistics

277

(1)

Computer Analyses

278

(1)

Summary

279

(3)

Quasi-Experimental Designs

282

(24)

Pretest-Posttest Designs

284

(7)

How NOT to Do a Study: The One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design

285

(1)

Nonequivalent Control Group Design

286

(5)

Time Series Designs

291

(5)

Simple Interrupted Time Series Design

291

(3)

Interrupted Time Series with a Reversal

294

(1)

Control Group Interrupted Time Series Design

295

(1)

Longitudinal Designs

296

(2)

Program Evaluation

298

(2)

Evaluating Quasi-Experimental Designs

300

(3)

Threats to Internal Validity

300

(2)

Increasing Confidence in Quasi-Experimental Results

302

(1)

Summary

303

(3)

Single-Case Research

306

(23)

Single-Case Experimental Designs

308

(13)

Criticisms of Group Designs and Analyses

309

(3)

Basic Single-Case Experimental Designs

312

(4)

Data from Single-Participant Designs

316

(2)

Uses of Single-Case Experimental Designs

318

(2)

Critique of Single-Participant Designs

320

(1)

Case Study Research

321

(4)

Uses of the Case Study Method

322

(1)

Limitations of the Case Study Approach

323

(2)

Summary

325

(4)

Ethical Issues in Behavioral Research

329

(24)

Approaches to Ethical Decisions

330

(2)

Basic Ethical Guidelines

332

(3)

Potential Benefits

333

(1)

Potential Costs

334

(1)

Balancing Benefits and Costs

334

(1)

The Institutional Review Board

334

(1)

The principle of Informed Consent

335

(3)

Obtaining Informed Consent

335

(1)

Problems with Obtaining Informed Consent

336

(2)

Invasion of Privacy

338

(1)

Coercion to Participate

339

(1)

Physical and Mental Stress

339

(1)

Deception in Research

340

(2)

Objections to Deception

340

(1)

Debriefing

341

(1)

Confidentiality in Research

342

(2)

Common Courtesy

344

(1)

Ethical Principles in Research with Animals

345

(2)

Scientific Misconduct

347

(3)

A Final Note

350

(1)

Summary

350

(3)

Scientific Writing

353

(46)

How Scientific Findings Are Disseminated

353

(4)

Journal Publication

354

(1)

Presentations at Professional Meetings

355

(1)

Personal Contact

356

(1)

Elements of Good Scientific Writing

357

(5)

Organization

357

(1)

Clarity

358

(2)

Conciseness

360

(1)

Proofreading and Rewriting

361

(1)

Avoiding Biased Language

362

(2)

Gender-Neutral Language

362

(2)

Other Language Pitfalls

364

(1)

Parts of a Manuscript

364

(6)

Title Page

365

(1)

Abstract

366

(1)

Introduction

367

(1)

Method

367

(1)

Results

368

(1)

Discussion

369

(1)

Citing and Referencing Previous Research

370

(3)

Citations in the Text

370

(1)

The Reference List

371

(2)

Other Aspects of APA Style

373

(4)

Optional Sections

373

(1)

Headings, Spacing, Pagination, and Numbers

374

(3)

Sample Manuscript

377

(22)

Glossary

399

(12)

Appendix A Statistical Tables

411

(7)

Appendix B Computational Formulas for ANOVA

418

(9)

References

427

(8)

Index

435

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Introduction to Behavioral Research Methods

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials