An Introduction to Environmental Chemistry

This introductory text explains the fundamentals of the chemistry of the natural environment and the effects of mankind's activities on the earth's chemical systems. Retains an emphasis on describing how natural geochemical processes operate over a variety of scales in time and space, and how the effects of human perturbation can be measured. Topics range from familiar global issues such as atmospheric pollution and its effect on global warming and ozone destruction, to microbiological processes that cause pollution of drinking water deltas. Contains sections and information boxes that explain the basic chemistry underpinning the subject covered. Each chapter contains a list of further reading on the subject area. Updated case studies. No prior chemistry knowledge required. Suitable for introductory level courses.

J.E. Andrews, P. Brimblecombe, T.D. Jickells, P.S. Liss and B. Reid are all based in the School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia. They have many years experience in teaching environmental chemistry to undergraduates and are internationally respected researchers in their fields.

List of boxes

ix

Preface to the second edition

xi

Preface to the first edition

xii

Acknowledgements

xiv

Symbols and abbreviations

xviii

1 Introduction

1

(13)

1.1 What is environmental chemistry?

1

(1)

1.2 In the beginning

2

(1)

1.3 Origin and evolution of the Earth

2

(7)

1.3.1 Formation of the crust and atmosphere

4

(1)

1.3.2 The hydrosphere

5

(3)

1.3.3 The origin of life and evolution of the atmosphere

8

(1)

1.4 Human effects on biogeochemical cycles?

9

(2)

1.5 The structure of this book

11

(1)

1.6 Internet keywords

12

(1)

1.7 Further reading

13

(1)

1.8 Internet search keywords

13

(1)

2 Environmental chemist's toolbox

14

(17)

2.1 About this chapter

14

(1)

2.2 Order in the elements?

14

(5)

2.3 Bonding

19

(2)

2.3.1 Covalent bonds

19

(1)

2.3.2 Ionic bonding, ions and ionic solids

20

(1)

2.4 Using chemical equations

21

(1)

2.5 Describing amounts of substances: the mole

22

(1)

2.6 Concentration and activity

22

(1)

2.7 Organic molecules - structure and chemistry

23

(4)

2.7.1 Functional groups

25

(1)

2.7.2 Representing organic matter in simple equations

26

(1)

2.8 Radioactivity of elements

27

(2)

2.9 Finding more chemical tools in this book

29

(1)

2.10 Further reading

30

(1)

2.11 Internet search keywords

30

(1)

3 The atmosphere

31

(35)

3.1 Introduction

31

(1)

3.2 Composition of the atmosphere

32

(3)

3.3 Steady state or equilibrium?

35

(3)

3.4 Natural sources

38

(6)

3.4.1 Geochemical sources

39

(2)

3.4.2 Biological sources

41

(3)

3.5 Reactivity of trace substances in the atmosphere

44

(1)

3.6 The urban atmosphere

45

3.6.1 London smog - primary pollution

46

(2)

3.6.2 Los Angeles smog - secondary pollution

48

(4)

3.6.3 21st-century particulate pollution

52

3.7 Air pollution and health 5

3

(52)

3.8 Effects of air pollution

55

(1)

3.9 Removal processes

56

(2)

3.10 Chemistry of the stratosphere

58

(6)

3.10.1 Stratospheric ozone formation and destruction

59

(2)

3.10.2 Ozone destruction by halogenated species

61

(2)

3.10.3 Saving the ozone layer

63

(1)

3.11 Further reading

64

(1)

3.12 Internet search keywords

65

(1)

4 The chemistry of continental solids

66

(75)

4.1 The terrestrial environment, crust and material cycling

66

(4)

4.2 The structure of silicate minerals

70

(6)

4.2.1 Coordination of ions and the radius ratio rule

70

(3)

4.2.2 The construction of silicate minerals

73

(1)

4.2.3 Structural organization in silicate minerals

73

(3)

4.3 Weathering processes

76

(1)

4.4 Mechanisms of chemical weathering

77

(10)

4.4.1 Dissolution

77

(1)

4.4.2 Oxidation

77

(6)

4.4.3 Acid hydrolysis

83

(1)

4.4.4 Weathering of complex silicate minerals

84

(3)

4.5 Clay minerals

87

(6)

4.5.1 One to one clay mineral structure

88

(1)

4.5.2 Two to one clay mineral structure

88

(5)

4.6 Formation of soils

93

(11)

4.6.1 Parent (bedrock) material (p)

94

(1)

4.6.2 Climate (cl)

94

(3)

4.6.3 Relief (r)

97

(2)

4.6.4 Vegetation (v)

99

(1)

4.6.5 Influence of organisms (o)

99

(5)

4.7 Wider controls on soil and clay mineral formation

104

(7)

4.8 Ion exchange and soil pH

111

(1)

4.9 Soil structure and classification

112

(7)

4.9.1 Soils with argillic horizons

113

(1)

4.9.2 Spodosols (podzols)

113

(4)

4.9.3 Soils with gley horizons

117

(2)

4.10 Contaminated land

119

(20)

4.10.1 Organic contaminants in soils

119

(6)

4.10.2 Degradation of organic contaminants in soils

125

(4)

4.10.3 Remediation of contaminated land

129

(8)

4.10.4 Phytoremediation

137

(2)

4.11 Further reading

139

(1)

4.12 Internet search keywords

140

(1)

5 The chemistry of continental waters

141

(40)

5.1 Introduction

141

(1)

5.2 Element chemistry

142

(3)

5.3 Water chemistry and weathering regimes

145

(10)

5.3.1 Alkalinity, dissolved inorganic carbon and pH buffering

151

(4)

5.4 Aluminium solubility and acidity

155

(6)

5.4.1 Acidification from atmospheric inputs

156

(1)

5.4.2 Acid mine drainage

156

(3)

5.4.3 Recognizing acidification from sulphate data - ternary diagrams

159

(2)

5.5 Biological processes

161

(9)

5.5.1 Nutrients and eutrophication

163

(7)

5.6 Heavy metal contamination

170

(4)

5.6.1 Mercury contamination from gold mining

170

(4)

5.7 Contamination of groundwater

174

(6)

5.7.1 Anthropogenic contamination of groundwater

176

(2)

5.7.2 Natural arsenic contamination of groundwater

178

(2)

5.8 Further reading

180

(1)

5.9 Internet search keywords

180

(1)

6 The oceans

181

(58)

6.1 Introduction

181

(1)

6.2 Estuarine processes

182

(7)

6.2.1 Aggregation of colloidal material in estuaries

183

(1)

6.2.2 Mixing processes in estuaries

184

(2)

6.2.3 Halmyrolysis and ion exchange in estuaries

186

(1)

6.2.4 Microbiological activity in estuaries

187

(2)

6.3 Major ion chemistry of seawater

189

(2)

6.4 Chemical cycling of major ions

191

(25)

6.4.1 Sea-to-air fluxes

194

(1)

6.4.2 Evaporites

194

(1)

6.4.3 Cation exchange

195

(1)

6.4.4 Calcium carbonate formation

196

(9)

6.4.5 Opaline silica

205

(1)

6.4.6 Sulphides

206

(2)

6.4.7 Hydrothermal processes

208

(6)

6.4.8 The potassium problem: balancing the seawater major ion budget

214

(2)

6.5 Minor chemical components in seawater

216

(11)

6.5.1 Dissolved gases

216

(1)

6.5.2 Dissolved ions

216

(2)

6.5.3 Conservative behaviour

218

(1)

6.5.4 Nutrient-like behaviour

218

(5)

6.5.5 Scavenged behaviour

223

(4)

6.6 The role of iron as a nutrient in the oceans

227

(2)

6.7 Ocean circulation and its effects on trace element distribution

229

(4)

6.8 Anthropogenic effects on ocean chemistry

233

(4)

6.8.1 Human effects on regional seas 1: the Baltic

233

(2)

6.8.2 Human effects on regional seas 2: the Gulf of Mexico

235

(1)

6.8.3 Human effects on total ocean minor element budgets?

235

(2)

6.9 Further reading

237

(1)

6.10 Internet search keywords

238

(1)

7 Global change

239

(44)

7.1 Why study global-scale environmental chemistry?

239

(1)

7.2 The carbon cycle

240

(22)

7.2.1 The atmospheric record

240

(2)

7.2.2 Natural and anthropogenic sources and sinks

242

(9)

7.2.3 The global budget of natural and anthropogenic carbon dioxide

251

(6)

7.2.4 The effects of elevated carbon dioxide levels on global temperature and other properties

257

(5)

7.3 The sulphur cycle

262

(12)

7.3.1 The global sulphur cycle and anthropogenic effects

262

(3)

7.3.2 The sulphur cycle and atmospheric acidity

265

(6)

7.3.3 The sulphur cycle and climate

271

(3)

7.4 Persistent organic pollutants

274

(7)

7.4.1 Persistent organic pollutant mobility in the atmosphere

274

(4)

7.4.2 Global persistent organic pollutant equilibrium

278

(3)

7.5 Further reading

281

(1)

7.6 Internet search keywords

281

(2)

Index

283

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An Introduction to Environmental Chemistry

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials