Introduction to Language

, by Fromkin, Victoria

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ISBN: 9780030186820 | 003018682X
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 8/18/1997

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Supplemental Materials

Preface

Part 1 The Nature of Human Language

(61)

Chapter 1 What Is Language?

(30)

Linguistic Knowledge

(8)

Knowledge of the Sound System

(1)

Knowledge of Words

(1)

Arbitrary Relation of Form and Meaning

(4)

The Creativity of Linguistic Knowledge

(2)

Knowledge of Sentences and Nonsentences

(1)

Linguistic Knowledge and Performance

(2)

What Is Grammar?

(4)

Descriptive Grammars

(1)

Prescriptive Grammars

(2)

Teaching Grammars

(1)

Language Universals

(4)

Sign Language: Evidence for Language Universals

(1)

American Sign Language (ASL)

(1)

Animal "Languages"

(4)

"Talking" Parrots

(1)

The Birds and the Bees

(2)

What We Know about Language

(1)

Summary

(2)

References for Further Reading

(1)

Exercises

(5)

Chapter 2 Brain and Language

(31)

The Human Brain

(15)

The Modularity of the Brain

(3)

Evidence from Childhood Brain Lesions

(2)

Split Brains

(2)

More Experimental Evidence

(1)

More Evidence for Modularity

(1)

Aphasia

(4)

Distinct Categories of Conceptual Knowledge

(1)

The Autonomy of Language

(2)

Asymmetry of Abilities

(1)

Laura

(1)

Christopher

(1)

Genetic Evidence for Language Autonomy

(1)

The Evolution of Language

(5)

In the Beginning: The Origin of Language

(2)

God's Gift to Mankind?

(1)

The First Language

(1)

Human Invention or the Cries of Nature?

(1)

The Development of Language in the Species

(1)

Summary

(2)

References for Further Reading

(1)

Exercises

(7)

Part 2 Grammatical Aspects of Language

(253)

Chapter 3 Morphology: The Words of Language

(41)

Dictionaries

(2)

Classes of Words

(1)

Lexical Content Words

(1)

Function Words

(1)

Morphemes: The Minimal Units of Meaning

(7)

Bound and Free Morphemes

(1)

Prefixes and Suffixes

(1)

Infixes

(1)

Circumfixes

(1)

Huckles and Ceives

(2)

Rules of Word Formation

(6)

Lexical Gaps

(1)

Derivational Morphology

(4)

"Pullet Surprises"

(1)

Sign Language Morphology

(1)

Word Coinage

(7)

Compounds

(2)

Meaning of Compounds

(1)

Universality of Compounding

(1)

Acronyms

(1)

Back-Formations

(1)

Abbreviations

(1)

Words from Names

(1)

Blends

(1)

Grammatical Morphemes

(6)

Inflectional Morphemes

(2)

Exceptions and Suppletions

(1)

Morphology and Syntax

(2)

Morphological Analysis: Identifying Morphemes

(1)

Summary

(2)

References for Further Reading

(1)

Exercises

(8)

Chapter 4 Syntax: The Sentence Patterns of Language

106

(52)

Grammatical or Ungrammatical?

106

(3)

What Grammaticality Is Based On

107

(1)

What Grammaticality Is Not Based On

108

(1)

What Else Do You Know about Syntax?

109

(2)

Sentence Structure

111

(9)

Syntactic Categories

112

(2)

Phrase Structure Trees

114

(2)

More Phrase Structure Trees

116

(2)

The Infinitude of Language

118

(2)

Phrase Structure Rules

120

(13)

Growing Trees: The Relationship between Phrase Structure Rules and Phrase Structure Trees

122

(4)

Trees That Won't Grow

126

(2)

Rules in Other Languages

128

(1)

More Phrase Structure Rules

129

(4)

The Lexicon

133

(3)

Subcategorization

134

(1)

More Lexical Differences

135

(1)

Sentence Relatedness

136

(9)

Transformational Rules

137

(6)

Long-Distance Relationships

143

(1)

"Wh-" Sentences

144

(1)

More about Sentence Structure

145

(3)

Sign Language Syntax

147

(1)

Summary

148

(1)

References for Further Reading

148

(1)

Exercises

149

(9)

Chapter 5 The Meanings of Language

158

(55)

Lexical Semantics (Word Meanings)

158

(13)

Semantic Properties

159

(1)

Evidence for Semantic Properties

160

(1)

Semantic Properties and the Lexicon

161

(1)

More Semantic Relationships

162

(1)

-nyms

162

(1)

Homonyms and Polysemy

163

(2)

Synonyms

165

(1)

Antonyms

166

(1)

Formation of Antonyms

167

(1)

Hyponyms

168

(1)

Metonyms

168

(1)

Retronyms

168

(1)

Proper Names

168

(3)

Phrase and Sentence Meaning

171

(13)

Phrasal Meaning

172

(1)

Noun-Centered Meaning

172

(2)

Sense and Reference

174

(1)

Verb-Centered Meaning

175

(1)

Thematic Roles

175

(2)

Thematic Roles in Other Languages

177

(1)

The Theta-Criterion

178

(1)

Sentential Meaning

178

(1)

The "Truth" of Sentences

178

(1)

Paraphrase

179

(1)

Entailment

180

(1)

Contradiction

180

(1)

When Semantics and Syntax Meet

181

(1)

Words versus Phrases

181

(1)

When Passives Do Not Work

182

(1)

Pronouns and Coreferentiality

183

(1)

When Rules Are Broken

184

(6)

Anomaly: No Sense and Nonsense

184

(3)

Metaphor

187

(1)

Idioms

188

(2)

Pragmatics

190

(11)

Linguistic Context: Discourse

191

(1)

Pronouns

191

(1)

Anaphora

192

(1)

Missing Parts

193

(1)

The Articles The and A

194

(1)

Situational Context

195

(1)

Maxims of Conversation

195

(2)

Speech Acts

197

(1)

Presuppositions

198

(1)

Deixis

199

(2)

Summary

201

(3)

References for Further Reading

203

(1)

Exercises

204

(9)

Chapter 6 Phonetics: The Sounds of Language

213

(41)

Sound Segments

213

(3)

Identity of Speech Sounds

215

(1)

Spelling and Speech

216

(5)

The Phonetic Alphabet

218

(3)

Articulatory Phonetics

221

(21)

Airstream Mechanisms

222

(1)

Consonants

223

(1)

Places of Articulation

223

(1)

Bilabials: [p] [b] [m]

223

(1)

Labiodentals: [f] [v]

224

(1)

Interdentals: [Theta] [XXX]

224

(1)

Alveolars: [t] [d] [n] [s] [z] [l] [r]

224

(1)

Palatals: [XXX] [3]/[XXX] [XXX] [XXX] [XXX]

224

(1)

Velars: [k] [g] [n]

224

(1)

Uvulars: [R] [q] [G]

224

(1)

Glottal: [?] [h]

224

(1)

Manners of Articulation

225

(1)

Voiced and Voiceless Sounds

225

(1)

Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds

226

(2)

Nasal and Oral Sounds

228

(1)

Stops: [p] [b] [m] [t] [d] [n] [k] [g] [n] [XXX] [XXX] [?]

229

(1)

Fricatives: [s] [z] [f] [v] [Theta] [XXX] [XXX] [XXX]

230

(1)

Affricates

231

(1)

Liquids: [l] [r]

232

(1)

Glides: [j] [w]

232

(1)

Phonetic Symbols for American English Consonants

233

(1)

Vowels

234

(1)

Tongue Position

235

(1)

Lip Rounding

236

(1)

Diphthongs

236

(1)

Nasalization of Vowels

237

(1)

Tense and Lax Vowels

238

(1)

Dialect Differences

238

(1)

Major Classes

239

(1)

Noncontinuants and Continuants

239

(1)

Obstruents and Sonorants

239

(1)

Consonants and Vowels

239

(1)

Labials: [p] [b] [m] [f] [v]

239

(1)

Coronals: [d] [t] [n] [s] [z] [XXX] [XXX] [XXX] [XXX]

239

(1)

240

(1)

Sibilants: [S] [Z] [XXX] [XXX] [XXX] [XXX]

240

(1)

Syllabic Sounds

240

(1)

Prosodic Suprasegmental Features

240

(1)

Tone and Intonation

240

(2)

Diacritics

242

(1)

Phonetic Symbols and Spelling Correspondences

243

(2)

Sign-Language Primes

245

(2)

Summary

247

(1)

References for Further Reading

248

(1)

Exercises

248

(6)

Chapter 7 Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language

254

(64)

Phonemes: The Phonological Units of Language

254

(8)

Sounds That Contrast

254

(1)

Minimal Pairs

255

(2)

Free Variation

257

(1)

Minimal Pairs in ASL

258

(1)

Phonemes, Phones, and Allophones

259

(2)

Complementary Distribution

261

(1)

Distinctive Features

262

(7)

Feature Values

262

(2)

Predictability of Redundant (Nondistinctive) Features

264

(2)

Unpredictability of Phonemic Features

266

(1)

More on Prosodic Phonology

274

(5)

Intonation

274

(2)

Word Stress

276

(2)

Sentence and Phrase Stress

278

(1)

The Rules of Phonology

279

(14)

Assimilation Rules

280

(3)

Feature Changing Rules

283

(1)

Dissimilation Rules

284

(1)

Feature Addition Rules

284

(1)

Segment Deletion and Addition Rules

285

(2)

Movement (Metathesis) Rules

287

(1)

From One to Many and from Many to One

288

(3)

The Function of Phonological Rules

291

(1)

Slips of the Tongue: Evidence for Phonological Rules

292

(1)

The Pronunciation of Morphemes

293

(7)

Morphophonemics

295

(2)

More Sequential Constraints

297

(3)

Phonological Analysis: Discovering Phonemes

300

(3)

Summary

303

(3)

References for Further Reading

305

(1)

Exercises

306

(12)

Part 3 The Psychology of Language

318

(81)

Chapter 8 Language Acquisition

318

(43)

Stages in Language Acquisition

318

(10)

The First Sounds

319

(1)

Babbling

320

(1)

First Words

321

(3)

The Two-Word Stage

324

(1)

From Telegraph to Infinity

325

(3)

Theories of Child Language Acquisition

328

(1)

Do Children Learn by Imitation?

328

(1)

Do Children Learn by Reinforcement?

329

(1)

Do Children Learn Language by Analogy?

330

(1)

Children Form Rules and Construct a Grammar

331

(2)

Errors or Rules?

333

(1)

The Acquisition of Phonology

333

(1)

Acquisition of Morphology

334

(2)

The Acquisition of Syntax

336

(1)

Learning the Meaning of Words

337

(2)

The Biological Foundations of Language Acquisition

339

(7)

The "Innateness Hypothesis"

339

(3)

The "Critical-Age Hypothesis"

342

(2)

The Acquisition of Bird Songs

344

(1)

The Acquisition of ASL

345

(1)

Learning a Second (or Third or ...) Language

346

(4)

Theories of Second-Language Acquisition

348

(1)

Second-Language Teaching Methods

349

(1)

Can Chimps Learn Human Language?

350

(5)

Gua

351

(1)

Viki

351

(1)

Washoe

351

(1)

Sarah

351

(1)

Learning Yerkish

352

(1)

Koko

352

(1)

Nim Chimpsky

353

(1)

Clever Hans

354

(1)

Kanzi

355

(1)

Summary

355

(3)

References for Further Reading

357

(1)

Exercises

358

(3)

Chapter 9 Language Processing: Humans and Computer

361

(38)

The Human Mind at Work: Human Language Processing

361

(12)

Comprehension

363

(1)

The Speech Signal

363

(2)

Speech Perception and Comprehension

365

(2)

Comprehension Models and Experimental Studies

367

(1)

Lexical Access and Word Recognition

367

(2)

Syntactic Processing

369

(1)

Speech Production

370

(1)

Planning Units

370

(1)

Lexical Selection

371

(1)

Application and Misapplication of Rules

372

(1)

Nonlinguistic Influences

373

(1)

Silicon at Work: Computer Processing of Human Language

373

(15)

Machine Translation

374

(1)

Text Processing

375

(1)

Computers That Talk and Listen

376

(1)

Talking Machines (Speech Synthesis)

377

(2)

Knowing What to Say

379

(2)

Machines for Understanding Speech

381

(1)

Speech Recognition

382

(1)

Speech Understanding

383

(1)

Parsing

383

(3)

Semantic Processing

386

(1)

Pragmatic Processing

387

(1)

Computer Models of Grammars

388

(1)

Summary

389

(3)

References for Further Reading

391

(1)

Exercises

392

(7)

Part 4 Language in Society

399

(120)

Chapter 10 Language in Society

399

(51)

Dialects

399

(3)

Regional Dialects

400

(1)

Accents

401

(1)

Dialects of English

402

(5)

Phonological Differences

403

(1)

Lexical Differences

404

(1)

Dialect Atlases

404

(2)

Syntactic Differences

406

(1)

The "Standard"

407

(5)

Language Purists

408

(1)

Banned Languages

409

(2)

The Revival of Languages

411

(1)

African American English (AAE)

412

(5)

Phonology of African American English

413

(1)

R-Deletion

413

(1)

L-Deletion

413

(1)

Consonant Cluster Simplification

413

(1)

Neutralization of [i] and [XXX] before Nasals

414

(1)

/XXX/ /XXX/

414

(1)

Loss of Interdental Fricatives

414

(1)

Syntactic Differences between AAE and SAE

414

(1)

Double Negatives

414

(1)

Deletion of the Verb "Be"

415

(1)

Habitual "Be"

415

(1)

History of African American English

416

(1)

Latino (Hispanic) English

417

(3)

Chicano English (ChE)

419

(1)

Phonological Variables of ChE

419

(1)

Syntactic Variables in ChE

420

(1)

Lingua Francas

420

(1)

Pidgins and Creoles

421

(4)

Pidgins

422

(3)

Creoles

425

(1)

Styles, Slang, and Jargon

425

(3)

Styles

425

(1)

Slang

426

(1)

Jargon and Argot

427

(1)

Taboo or Not Taboo?

428

(6)

Euphemisms

432

(1)

Racial and National Epithets

433

(1)

Language, Sex, and Gender

434

(5)

Marked and Unmarked Forms

435

(2)

The Generic "He"

437

(1)

Language and Gender

438

(1)

Secret Languages and Language Games

439

(1)

Summary

440

(3)

References for Further Reading

442

(1)

Exercises

443

(7)

Chapter 11 Language Change: The Syllables of Time

450

(42)

The Regularity of Sound Change

450

(6)

Sound Correspondences

451

(1)

Ancestral Protolanguages

451

(1)

Phonological Change

452

(4)

Phonological Rules

453

(1)

The Great Vowel Shift

454

(2)

Morphological Change

456

(1)

Syntactic Change

457

(2)

Lexical Change

459

(5)

Borrowings

459

(1)

History and Borrowed Words

460

(2)

New Words

462

(1)

Loss of Words

462

(1)

Semantic Change

463

(1)

Broadening

463

(1)

Narrowing

463

(1)

Meaning Shifts

463

(1)

Reconstructing "Dead" Languages

464

(8)

The Nineteenth-Century Comparativists

464

(1)

Cognates

465

(2)

Comparative Reconstruction

467

(3)

Historical Evidence

470

(2)

Extinct and Endangered Languages

472

(1)

The Genetic Classification of Languages

473

(5)

Languages of the World

476

(2)

Types of Languages

478

(2)

Why Do Languages Change?

480

(2)

Summary

482

(1)

References for Further Reading

483

(1)

Exercises

483

(9)

Chapter 12 Writing: The ABCs of Language

492

(27)

The History of Writing

492

(7)

Pictograms and Ideograms

493

(2)

Cuneiform Writing

495

(2)

The Rebus Principle

497

(1)

From Hieroglyphs to the Alphabet

498

(1)

Modern Writing Systems

499

(6)

Word Writing

499

(1)

Syllabic Writing

500

(2)

Consonantal Alphabet Writing

502

(1)

Alphabetic Writing

502

(3)

Reading, Writing, and Speech

505

(7)

Reading

507

(1)

Spelling

507

(4)

Spelling Pronunciations

511

(1)

Summary

512

(1)

References for Further Reading

513

(1)

Exercises

513

(6)

Glossary

519

(22)

Index

541

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Introduction to Language

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

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Introduction to Language

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

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