An Introduction to Logic and Scientific Method

, by Cohen, Morris R.; Nagel, Ernest

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ISBN: 9781931541916 | 1931541914
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 11/1/2003

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Supplemental Materials

Preface

iii

The Subject Matter of Logic

Logic and the Weight of Evidence

(2)

Conclusive Evidence or Proof

(3)

The Nature of Logical Implication

(5)

Partial Evidence or Probable Inference

(3)

Is Logic about Words, Thoughts, or Objects?

(5)

The Use and Application of Logic

(6)

BOOK I: FORMAL LOGIC

The Analysis of Propositions

What Is a Proposition?

(3)

The Traditional Analysis of Propositions

(14)

Compound, Simple, and General Propositions

(8)

The Relations Between Propositions

The Possible Logical Relations between Propositions

(4)

Independent Propositions

(1)

Equivalent Propositions

(8)

The Traditional Square of Opposition

(3)

The Opposition of Propositions in General

(8)

The Categorical Syllogism

The Definition of Categorical Syllogisms

(2)

The Enthymeme

(1)

The Rules or Axioms of Validity

(2)

The General Theorems of the Syllogism

(1)

The Figures and Moods of the Syllogism

(3)

The Special Theorems and Valid Moods of the First Figure

(1)

The Special Theorems and Valid Moods of the Second Figure

(1)

The Special Theorems and Valid Moods of the Third Figure

(1)

The Special Theorems and Valid Moods of the Fourth Figure

(1)

The Reduction of Syllogisms

(4)

The Antilogism or Inconsistent Triad

(3)

The Sorites

(2)

Hypothetical, Alternative, and Disjunctive Syllogisms

The Hypothetical Syllogism

(4)

The Alternative Syllogism

100

(1)

The Disjunctive Syllogism

101

(2)

The Reduction of Mixed Syllogisms

103

(1)

Pure Hypothetical and Alternative Syllogisms

103

(2)

The Dilemma

105

(5)

Generalized or Mathematical Logic

Logic as the Science of Types of Order

110

(3)

The Formal Properties of Relations

113

(2)

The Logical Properties of Relations in Some Familiar Inferences

115

(2)

Symbols: Their Function and Value

117

(4)

The Calculus of Classes

121

(5)

The Calculus of Propositions

126

(3)

The Nature of a Logical or Mathematical System

The Function of Axioms

129

(4)

Pure Mathematics---an Illustration

133

(4)

Structural Identity or Isomorphism

137

(4)

The Equivalence of Axiom Sets

141

(2)

The Independence and Consistency of Axioms

143

(4)

Mathematical Induction

147

(1)

What Generalization Means in Mathematics

148

(3)

Probable Inference

The Nature of Probable Inference

151

(7)

The Mathematics or Calculus of Probability

158

(6)

Interpretations of Probability

164

(9)

Some Problems of Logic

The Paradox of Inference

173

(4)

Is the Syllogism a Petitio Principii?

177

(4)

The Laws of Thought

181

(4)

The Basis of Logical Principles in the Nature of Things

185

(6)

BOOK II: APPLIED LOGIC AND SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Logic and the Method of Science

191

(227)

Hypotheses and Scientific Method

The Occasion and the Function of Inquiry

197

(3)

The Formulation of Relevant Hypotheses

200

(2)

The Deductive Development of Hypotheses

202

(5)

The Formal Conditions for Hypotheses

207

(8)

Facts, Hypotheses, and Crucial Experiments

215

(6)

The Role of Analogy in the Formation of Hypotheses

221

(2)

Classification and Definition

The Significance of Classification

223

(1)

The Purpose and the Nature of Definition

224

(10)

The Predicables

234

(4)

Rules for Definition

238

(3)

Division and Classification

241

(4)

The Methods of Experimental Inquiry

Types of Invariant Relations

245

(4)

The Experimental Methods in General

249

(2)

The Method of Agreement

251

(5)

The Method of Difference

256

(4)

The Joint Method of Agreement and Difference

260

(1)

The Method of Concomitant Variation

261

(3)

The Method of Residues

264

(1)

Summary Statement of the Value of the Experimental Methods

265

(2)

The Doctrine of the Uniformity of Nature

267

(2)

The Plurality of Causes

269

(4)

Probability and Induction

What Is Inductive Reasoning?

273

(6)

The Role of Fair Samples in Induction

279

(5)

The Mechanism of Sampling

284

(2)

Reasoning from Analogy

286

(3)

Measurement

The Purpose of Measurement

289

(2)

The Nature of Counting

291

(2)

The Measurement of Intensive Qualities

293

(3)

The Measurement of Extensive Qualities

296

(1)

The Formal Conditions for Measurement

297

(1)

Numerical Laws and Derived Measurement

298

(4)

Statistical Methods

The Need for Statistical Methods

302

(1)

Statistical Averages

303

(7)

Measures of Dispersion

310

(2)

Measures of Correlation

312

(4)

Dangers and Fallacies in the Use of Statistics

316

(7)

Probable Inference in History and Allied Inquiries

Does History Employ Scientific Method?

323

(3)

The Authenticity of Historical Data

326

(3)

Establishing the Meaning of Historical Data

329

(5)

Determining the Evidential Value of Historical Testimony

334

(6)

Systematic Theories in History

340

(4)

The Comparative Method

344

(3)

The Weighing of Evidence in Court

347

(5)

Logic and Critical Evaluation

Are Evaluations Beyond Logic?

352

(1)

Moral Judgments in History

353

(4)

The Logic of Critical Judgments on Art

357

(5)

The Logic of Moral and Practical Judgments

362

(5)

The Logic of Fictions

367

(9)

Fallacies

Logical Fallacies

376

(5)

Sophistical Refutations

381

(1)

The Abuse of Scientific Method

382

(9)

Conclusion

What Is Scientific Method?

391

(8)

The Limits and the Value of Scientific Method

399

(8)

Appendix--Examples of Demonstration

1. What Does a Demonstration Establish?

407

(6)

2. Some Fallacious Demonstrations

413

(5)

Exercises

418

(43)

Index

461

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An Introduction to Logic and Scientific Method

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials