An Introduction to Nuclear Waste Immobilisation

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ISBN: 9780080444628 | 0080444628
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 11/4/2005

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With traditional fossil fuel energy sources under criticism due to their impact on climate change and the environment, nuclear power has experienced a resurgence of interest as an energy source for the future. Issues of safety and environmental impact are inevitably at the forefront of any discussion surrounding nuclear power, and opponents of its use invariably raise the "waste problem" as a reason for not building new reactors.

Foreword

xiii

Preface

Acknowledgements

xvii

Chapter 1. Introduction to Immobilisation

(8)

1.1. Introduction

(1)

1.2. Importance of Waste

(1)

1.3. Radioactive Waste

(1)

1.4. Recycling

(1)

1.5. Waste Minimisation

(1)

1.6. Immobilisation

(1)

1.7. Time Frames

(1)

Bibliography

(3)

Chapter 2. Nuclear Decay

(14)

2.1. Nuclear Decay

(1)

2.2. Decay Law

(1)

2.3. Radioactive Equilibrium

(1)

2.4. Activity

(1)

2.5. Alpha Decay

(1)

2.6. Beta Decay

(1)

2.7. Gamma Decay

(1)

2.8. Spontaneous Fission

(1)

2.9. Radionuclide Characteristics

(4)

Bibliography

(2)

Chapter 3. Contaminants and Hazards

(12)

3.1. Elemental Abundance

(1)

3.2. Migration and Redistribution

(3)

3.3. Hazard Potential

(2)

3.4. Relative Hazard

(1)

3.5. Real hazard Concept

(1)

3.6. Form Factors that Diminish the Hazard

(2)

Bibliography

(2)

Chapter 4. Heavy Metals

(8)

4.1. Metallic Contaminants

(1)

4.2. Biogeochemical Cycle

(2)

4.3. Heavy Metals

(1)

4.4. Heavy Metals in Living Species

(1)

4.5. Lead

(1)

4.6. Mercury

(1)

4.7. Cadmium

(1)

4.8. Arsenic

(1)

Bibliography

(2)

Chapter 5. Naturally Occurring Radionuclides

(10)

5.1. NORM and TENORM

(1)

5.2. Primordial Radionuclides

(4)

5.3. Cosmogenic Radionuclides

(1)

5.4. Natural Radionuclides in Igneous Rocks

(1)

5.5. Natural Radionuclides in Sedimentary Rocks and Soils

(1)

5.6. Natural Radionuclides in Sea Water

(1)

5.7. Radon Emissions

(1)

5.8. Natural Radionuclides in the Human Body

(1)

Bibliography

(1)

Chapter 6. Background Radiation

(8)

6.1. Radiation is Natural

(1)

6.2. Dose Units

(1)

6.3. Biological Consequences of Irradiation

(3)

6.4. Background Radiation

(2)

Bibliography

(1)

Chapter 7. Nuclear Waste Regulations

(10)

7.1. Regulatory Organisations

(1)

7.2. Protection Philosophies

(1)

7.3. Regulation of Radioactive Materials and Sources

(1)

7.4. Exemption Criteria and Levels

(1)

7.5. Clearance of Materials from Regulatory Control

(2)

7.6. Double Standards

(1)

7.7. Dose Limits

(1)

7.8. Control of Radiation Hazards

(2)

Bibliography

(2)

Chapter 8. Principles of Nuclear Waste Management

(10)

8.1. International Consensus

(1)

8.2. Objective of Radioactive Waste Management

(1)

8.3. Fundamental Principles

(1)

8.4. Comments on the Fundamental Principles

(6)

8.5. Ethical Principles

(1)

8.6. Joint Convention

(1)

Bibliography

(2)

Chapter 9. Sources and Characteristics of Nuclear Wastes

(24)

9.1. Key Waste Characteristics

(1)

9.2. Classification Schemes

(3)

9.3. Examples of Waste Classification

(1)

9.4. Sources of Waste

(4)

9.5. Front End and Operational NFC Waste

(2)

9.6. Back End Open NFC Waste

(1)

9.7. Back End Closed NFC Waste

(4)

9.8. Back End NFC Decommissioning Waste

(1)

9.9. Non-NFC Wastes

(4)

9.10. Accidental Wastes

100

(3)

Bibliography

103

(2)

Chapter 10. Short-Lived Waste Radionuclides

105

(10)

10.1. Introduction

105

(1)

10.2. Tritium

105

(3)

10.3. Cobalt-60

108

(1)

10.4. Strontium-90

109

(2)

10.5. Caesium-137

111

(2)

Bibliography

113

(2)

Chapter 11. Long-Lived Waste Radionuclides

115

(10)

11.1. Introduction

115

(1)

11.2. Carbon-14

115

(2)

11.3. Technetium-99

117

(2)

11.4. Iodine-129

119

(1)

11.5. Plutonium

120

(2)

11.6. Neptunium-237

122

(1)

11.7. Nuclear Criticality

123

(1)

Bibliography

123

(2)

Chapter 12. Management and Characterisation of Radioactive Wastes

125

(10)

12.1. Management Roadmaps

125

(1)

12.2. Predisposal

125

(4)

12.3. Disposal

129

(2)

12.4. Characterisation

131

(2)

Bibliography

133

(2)

Chapter 13. Pre-Treatment of Radioactive Wastes

135

(14)

13.1. Pre-Treatment Definition

135

(1)

13.2. Collection and Segregation

136

(1)

13.3. Adjustment

136

(1)

13.4. Size Reduction

137

(2)

13.5. Packaging

139

(1)

13.6. Decontamination

140

(6)

Bibliography

146

(3)

Chapter 14. Treatment of Radioactive Wastes

149

(30)

14.1. Treatment Objectives

149

(1)

14.2. Treatment of Aqueous Wastes

150

(10)

14.2.1. Evaporation

150

(2)

14.2.2. Chemical Precipitation

152

(3)

14.2.3. Sorption and Ion Exchange

155

(4)

14.2.4. Membrane Methods

159

(1)

14.2.5. Combined Methods

160

(1)

14.3. Treatment of Organic Liquid Wastes

160

(3)

14.4. Treatment of Solid Wastes

163

(10)

14.4.1. Compaction and Super-Compaction

163

(2)

14.4.2. Incineration

165

(5)

14.4.3. Chemical and Thermochemical Decomposition

170

(3)

14.5. Treatment of Gaseous and Airborne Effluents

173

(2)

14.6. Partitioning and Transmutation

175

(1)

Bibliography

176

(3)

Chapter 15. Immobilisation of Radioactive Wastes in Cement

179

(22)

15.1. Waste Immobilisation

179

(1)

15.2. Waste-Form Leaching Behaviour

179

(2)

15.3. Immobilisation Techniques

181

(1)

15.4. Immobilisation in Hydraulic Cements

182

(1)

15.5. Hydraulic Cements

183

(2)

15.6. Cement Hydration

185

(1)

15.7. Hydrated Cement Composition

186

(2)

15.8. Cementation of Radioactive Wastes

188

(1)

15.9. Modified and Composite Cement Systems

189

(4)

15.10. Cementation Technology

193

(3)

15.11. Acceptance Criteria

196

(3)

Bibliography

199

(2)

Chapter 16. Immobilisation of Radioactive Wastes in Bitumen

201

(12)

16.1. Bituminisation

201

(1)

16.2. Composition and Properties of Bitumen

201

(2)

16.3. Bituminous Materials for Waste Immobilisation

203

(1)

16.4. Bituminisation Technique

204

(4)

16.5. Acceptance Criteria

208

(1)

16.6. Bitumen Versus Cement

209

(1)

Bibliography

210

(3)

Chapter 17. Immobilisation of Radioactive Wastes in Glass

213

(38)

17.1. Vitrification

213

(1)

17.2. Immobilisation Mechanisms

214

(2)

17.3. Retention of Radionuclides

216

(1)

17.4. Nuclear Waste Glasses

217

(1)

17.5. Nuclear Waste Glass Compositions

217

(1)

17.6. Borosilicate Glasses

218

(4)

17.7. Role of Boron Oxide

222

(2)

17.8. Role of Intermediates and Modifiers

224

(2)

17.9. Difficult Elements

226

(1)

17.10. Phosphate Glasses

227

(2)

17.11. Glass Composites

229

(3)

17.12. Vitrification Processes

232

(6)

17.13. Cold Crucible Melters

238

(3)

17.14. Vitrification Technology

241

(2)

17.15. Calcination

243

(2)

17.16. Radionuclide Volatility

245

(2)

17.18. Acceptance Criteria

247

(1)

Bibliography

248

(3)

Chapter 18. New Immobilising Hosts and Technologies

251

(18)

18.1. New Approaches

251

(1)

18.2. Crystalline Waste-Forms

252

(4)

18.3. Polyphase Crystalline Waste-Forms: Synroc

256

(1)

18.4. Polyphase Crystalline Waste-Forms: Composites

257

(2)

18.5. New Technological Approaches

259

(4)

18.6. Metal Matrix Immobilisation

263

(2)

Bibliography

265

(4)

Chapter 19. Nuclear Waste Disposal

269

(20)

19.1. Disposal/Storage Concepts

269

(1)

19.2. Retention Times

269

(1)

19.3. Multi-Barrier Concept

270

(1)

19.4. Disposal/Storage Options

271

(5)

19.5. Role of the EBS

276

(1)

19.6. Importance of Geology

277

(4)

19.7. Transport of Radionuclides

281

(2)

19.8. Disposal/Storage Experience

283

(2)

19.9. Acceptance Criteria

285

(1)

Bibliography

286

(3)

Chapter 20. Performance Assessment

289

(18)

20.1. Safety and Performance Assessments

289

(1)

20.2. Safety Requirements

289

(2)

20.3. Safety Case Content

291

(2)

20.4. Cement Performance

293

(2)

20.5. Bitumen Performance

295

(1)

20.6. Glass Performance

295

(3)

20.7. Radiation Effects

298

(4)

20.8. Research Laboratories

302

(1)

20.9. Conclusion

302

(2)

Bibliography

304

(3)

Index

307

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