Introduction to the Principles of Materials Evaluation

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ISBN: 9780849373923 | 0849373921
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 11/8/2007

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Testing of materials for the likelihood of failure is important for any material throughout its entire service life. Choosing the proper technique is important not just for economic reasons; in many circumstances, it can save lives. Building on the common links among all types of material evaluation methods, Introduction to the Principles of Materials Evaluation presents a systematic and thorough examination of all types of destructive and nondestructive testing methods, focusing on the advantages and practical utility of each.

Preface	p. xv
Acknowledgments	p. xvii
Introduction	p. 1
Fundamentals of Materials Evaluation and the Concept of Lifetime of Materials	p. 1
Effects of Different Forms of Energy on Materials	p. 1
Factors That Can Cause Failure of a Material	p. 2
Testing	p. 2
Macroexamination	p. 2
Microexamination (Micrographs)	p. 2
Comparison of Visual Inspection with Other Methods	p. 2
Unassisted Visual Inspection	p. 2
Assisted Visual Observation	p. 3
Various Methods in Materials Evaluation	p. 6
Concept for Nondestructive Evaluation	p. 7
Techniques for Nondestructive Assessment	p. 7
Major Methods	p. 7
Minor Methods	p. 7
Remedial Action	p. 8
Terminology	p. 8
Mechanical Properties of Materials	p. 11
Effects of Stress on a Material	p. 11
Mechanical Testing	p. 12
Destructive vs. Nondestructive Testing	p. 12
The Stress-Strain Curve	p. 12
Elastic Modulus	p. 14
Yield Strength	p. 14
Plastic Deformation	p. 14
Tensile Strength	p. 14
Ductility	p. 16
Toughness and Resilience	p. 16
Stress-Strain Relationships and Elastic Properties	p. 16
Longitudinal Stress and Strain: Young's Modulus	p. 17
Transverse Strain: Poisson's Ratio	p. 18
Shear Stress and Strain: Shear Modulus	p. 19
Volumetric Strain under Uniaxial Stress	p. 21
Volumetric Strain under Hydrostatic Stress	p. 21
Torsional Stress and Strain	p. 22
Hardness	p. 23
Brinell Hardness	p. 23
Vickers Hardness	p. 25
Rockwell Hardness	p. 25
Knoop Microhardness	p. 26
Relationship between Hardness and Other Mechanical Properties	p. 27
References	p. 29
Sound Waves: Acoustic and Ultrasonic Properties of Materials	p. 31
Vibrations and Waves	p. 31
The Wave Equation	p. 31
Wavelength and Frequency	p. 33
Relationship between Mechanical Properties and Wave Propagation	p. 33
Transverse Waves	p. 34
Longitudinal Waves	p. 35
Changes in Mechanical Properties	p. 37
Launching Waves in Materials	p. 38
Transducers	p. 38
Modes of Inspection: Pulse-Echo and Pitch-Catch	p. 38
Time of Flight: Thickness Determination	p. 40
Attenuation	p. 42
Notation for Attenuation and Amplification of Signals	p. 43
Acoustic Emission	p. 44
Laser Generation of Ultrasound	p. 44
References	p. 45
Thermal Properties of Materials	p. 47
Thermal Effects in Materials	p. 47
Thermal Capacity and Temperature Change	p. 47
Thermal Conduction	p. 48
Thermal Expansion	p. 50
Stress Due to Thermal Expansion	p. 51
Temperature Dependence of Materials Properties	p. 51
Ductile-to-Brittle Transition	p. 52
Effects of Heat on Structure of Materials	p. 53
Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth	p. 53
Effects of Annealing on Hardness and Ductility	p. 54
Creep	p. 56
References	p. 57
Electrical and Magnetic Properties of Materials	p. 59
Electrical Insulators	p. 59
Polarization	p. 59
Relation between Polarization and Field	p. 59
Surface Charge	p. 60
Values of Dielectric Coefficients	p. 61
Electrical Conductors	p. 61
Electric Current and Current Density	p. 62
Relationship between Current Density, Conductivity, and Electric Field	p. 62
Movement of Electrons in Conducting Materials	p. 62
Temperature Dependence of Resistivity	p. 64
Electrical Measurements for Materials Testing	p. 66
Generation of Eddy Currents	p. 66
Penetration of a Plane Electromagnetic Wave into a Material	p. 67
Skin Depth	p. 68
Electrical Parameters	p. 69
Relationship between Voltage and Current under AC Excitation	p. 70
Components of Impedance	p. 71
Magnetic Fields	p. 71
Magnetic Field H	p. 72
Magnetic Induction B	p. 72
Magnetic Fields in Various Configurations	p. 74
Three Simple Cases	p. 75
Leakage Flux in the Vicinity of Flaws	p. 76
References	p. 77
Effects of Radiation on Materials	p. 79
Basics of X-Rays	p. 79
Generation of X-Rays	p. 79
Typical X-Ray Spectrum	p. 79
Attenuation of Radiation	p. 80
Attenuation Coefficients	p. 81
Mass Attenuation Coefficient	p. 82
Composite Attenuation Coefficients	p. 82
Interaction of X-Rays with Materials	p. 84
Principal Interaction Processes	p. 84
Atomic Attenuation Coefficient	p. 85
Electronic Attenuation Coefficient	p. 86
Contributions to Attenuation	p. 86
Energy Dependence of Attenuation Coefficients	p. 86
Surface Analysis Using Radiative Methods	p. 89
X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF)	p. 89
Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS)	p. 90
Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES)	p. 91
X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)	p. 92
Exposure, Dose, and Dose Rate	p. 93
Reduction in Intensity of a Divergent Beam of Radiation	p. 93
Shielding of a Nondivergent Beam of Radiation	p. 93
Reduction in Intensity of a Divergent Beam with Shielding	p. 94
Dose	p. 94
Reduction of Exposure to Radiation and Dose Rate	p. 94
Measurement Units: Roentgen, Rad, and Rem	p. 95
Recommended Upper Limits for Radiation Dose	p. 96
References	p. 97
Mechanical Testing Methods	p. 99
Tensile Testing	p. 99
Stress-Strain Curve	p. 99
Engineering Stress vs. True Stress	p. 99
Nonlinear Behavior	p. 101
Hardness Tests	p. 102
Comparison of Hardness Tests and Conversion between Hardness Scales	p. 102
Relationship of Hardness to Other Mechanical Properties	p. 103
Variation of Indentation Area with Load: Reliability of Hardness Tests	p. 105
Cracks and Failure of Materials	p. 107
Cracks and Other Defects	p. 107
Crack Growth	p. 109
Fatigue	p. 109
Detection of Cracks Using Liquid Penetrants	p. 110
Other Methods for Surface Inspection	p. 114
Impact and Fracture Tests	p. 114
Fracture Toughness	p. 115
Relationship between Fracture Toughness and Charpy V Notch Test	p. 117
Temperature Dependence of Fracture Toughness	p. 118
References	p. 121
Ultrasonic Testing Methods	p. 123
Generation of Ultrasound in Materials	p. 123
Transducers	p. 123
Beam Divergence	p. 126
Distance-Amplitude Correction Curve	p. 126
Display and Interpretation of Ultrasonic Data	p. 131
Interpretation of Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Signals	p. 133
Inhomogeneous and Layered Materials	p. 135
Transmission and Reflection at Interfaces	p. 136
Amplitude of Reflected Wave	p. 136
Energy Transfer and Conservation	p. 136
Dependence of Reflected Energy on Impedances	p. 138
Amplitude of Transmitted Wave	p. 138
Angle Beams and Guided Waves	p. 139
Mode Conversion	p. 140
Nonnormal Reflection	p. 140
Refraction	p. 141
Surface Acoustic Waves	p. 141
References	p. 144
Electrical Testing Methods	p. 147
Basics of Eddy Current Testing	p. 147
Eddy Current Inspection	p. 148
Impedance Plane Response	p. 149
Depth Dependence of Intensity of Eddy Currents	p. 150
Dependence of Penetration Depth on Materials Properties	p. 152
Eddy Current Sensors	p. 153
Various Sensor Geometries and Configurations	p. 153
Equivalent Circuits	p. 155
Impedance Measurement	p. 155
Impedance Plane Representation	p. 155
Factors Affecting Eddy Current Response	p. 157
Materials Properties Affecting Eddy Currents	p. 157
Effects of Cracks on Eddy Currents	p. 158
Geometrical Factors Affecting Eddy Currents	p. 158
Mutual Inductance	p. 160
References	p. 161
Magnetic Testing Methods	p. 163
Magnetization	p. 163
Intrinsic Magnetic Properties	p. 163
Magnetization Curves and Hysteresis	p. 164
Dynamic Demagnetizing Effects: Reducing the Magnetization to Zero	p. 164
Static Demagnetizing Effects: The Demagnetizing Factor	p. 165
Equations Governing the Demagnetizing Effects in Inhamogeneous Materials	p. 167
Magnetic Methods for Evaluation of Defects	p. 168
Intrinsic Methods	p. 168
Extrinsic Methods	p. 168
Detection of Flaws and Cracks Using Magnetic Flux Leakage	p. 169
Description of Cracks as Magnetic Dipoles	p. 170
Equations for Fields around Cracks	p. 170
Examples of Leakage Field Calculations	p. 173
Magnetic Particle Inspection	p. 174
Various Procedures for Generating the Magnetic Field for MPI	p. 174
Practical Considerations for Use in MPI	p. 175
Rigid Coils	p. 175
Flexible Coils	p. 176
Current Needed to Magnetize Steels	p. 176
Ketos Ring Test	p. 176
Pie Gauge Test	p. 177
Special Techniques for MPI	p. 178
References	p. 180
Radiographic Testing Methods	p. 183
X-Ray Imaging	p. 183
X-Ray Images	p. 183
Blurring of Images	p. 184
Projection Radiography	p. 184
Geometrical Unsharpness	p. 184
Magnification	p. 186
Other Geometrical Features	p. 186
Contact Radiography	p. 186
Radiographic Film	p. 187
Properties of the X-Ray Film	p. 187
Film Exposure	p. 187
Photographic Density	p. 187
Radiographic Contrast	p. 188
Film Density and Gradient	p. 188
Unsharpness	p. 189
Radiographs	p. 190
Beam Divergence	p. 190
Examples of How Material Defects Can Appear in a Radiograph	p. 191
Optimum Exposure of Radiographs	p. 193
Variation of Radiographic Density with Exposure	p. 193
Effects of Spatial Variation in Mass Attenuation Coefficients	p. 195
Determination of Optimum Exposure Time for a Radiograph	p. 195
Photon Energy	p. 195
Absorption or Attenuation Coefficient	p. 196
X-Ray Intensity	p. 196
Radiographic Contrast	p. 196
Film Unsharpness	p. 196
Equivalent Thickness of Steel	p. 196
Correction for Film Density	p. 197
Normalization for Source-to-Film Distance	p. 197
References	p. 198
Thermal Testing Methods	p. 201
Heat Transfer	p. 201
Thermal Conduction	p. 201
Thermal Radiation	p. 202
Temperature Transients	p. 202
Heat Flow	p. 203
Thermal Waves	p. 203
Thermal Inspection Procedures	p. 204
Contact Detection Methods	p. 204
Noncontact Detection Methods	p. 205
Thermometry	p. 205
Contact Thermometry	p. 205
Noncontact Thermometry	p. 205
Thermography	p. 205
Contact Thermography	p. 207
Liquid Crystals	p. 207
Phosphors	p. 207
Heat Sensitive Paints	p. 208
Heat Sensitive Papers	p. 208
Noncontact Thermography	p. 208
Applications of Thermography	p. 209
Sonic Infrared Inspection	p. 209
References	p. 209
Destructive vs. Nondestructive Testing	p. 211
Testing Options	p. 211
Testing vs. No Testing	p. 211
Factors to Consider in Selecting Tests	p. 212
Destructive Testing vs. Nondestructive Testing	p. 212
Economics of Testing	p. 213
Added Value vs. Cost of Nondestructive Testing	p. 214
Added Value vs. Cost of Destructive Testing	p. 214
Profit vs. Cost of Failure	p. 214
In-Service Testing	p. 214
Added Value vs. Costs of Nondestructive Testing and Failure	p. 215
Destructive Tests with Cost of Failure	p. 215
Economic Considerations in Destructive vs. Nondestructive Testing	p. 216
Materials Characterization	p. 217
Materials Characterization vs. Nondestructive Evaluation	p. 217
Intrinsic Properties vs. Performance	p. 217
Examples of Characterization Methods	p. 218
Remaining Lifetime and Failure of Materials	p. 219
References	p. 219
Defect Detection	p. 221
Terminology for Nondestructive Evaluation	p. 221
Discontinuity, Imperfection, Flaw, and Defect	p. 221
Noncritical Flaw	p. 221
Critical Flaw	p. 221
Indication	p. 221
False Indication	p. 222
Nonrelevant Indication	p. 222
Relevant Indication	p. 222
Interpretation and Evaluation	p. 222
Probability of Detection	p. 222
Dependence of Signal Amplitude on Flaw Size	p. 223
Threshold Signal Level	p. 223
Probability of Detection: Ideal Conditions	p. 225
Probability of Detection: Real Conditions	p. 226
Statistical Variation of Signal Levels	p. 228
Mathematical Formalism Using a Normal Distribution	p. 228
Other Statistical Distributions	p. 232
References	p. 232
Reliability and Lifetime Extension	p. 235
Reliability and Criteria for Decisions	p. 235
Accept/Reject Criteria	p. 235
Threshold Signal Level	p. 236
Decision Matrix	p. 237
False Accepts and False Rejects	p. 238
Dependence of Probability of False Accepts on Threshold Signal Level	p. 239
Dependence of Probability of False Rejects on Threshold Signal Level	p. 241
Relative Operating Characteristics: The ROC Curve	p. 241
Lifetime Extension	p. 242
Economic Considerations	p. 243
Retirement for Cause	p. 244
References	p. 244
Solutions to Exercises	p. 245
Index	p. 265
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Introduction to the Principles of Materials Evaluation

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Table of Contents

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