- ISBN: 9781118732298 | 1118732294
- Cover: Paperback
- Copyright: 12/15/2014
Ronald Wardhaugh is Professor Emeritus in the Department of Linguistics at the University of Toronto. He is the author of a number of books, including Proper English (Wiley-Blackwell, 1998) and Understanding English Grammar, 2nd Edition (Wiley-Blackwell, 2003).
Janet M. Fuller is Professor in the Department of Anthropology at Southern Illinois University Carbondale. She has recently published two books dealing with multilingualism, discourse and identity: Bilingual Pre-Teens: Competing ideologies and multiple identities in the U.S. and Germany (2012) and Spanish Speakers in the USA (2013), and was the editor of the sociolinguistics section of the Language and Linguistics Compass (Wiley-Blackwell) from 2010–2013.Companion Website xiii
List of Figures xiv
List of Tables xv
Preface xvi
Acknowledgments xvii
1 Introduction 1
Key Concepts 1
Knowledge of Language 3
Competence and performance 4
Variation 5
Speakers and Their Groups 7
Language and Culture 10
Directions of influence 10
The Whorfian hypothesis 11
Correlations 14
The Boundaries of Sociolinguistics 15
Methodological Concerns 17
Data 18
Research design 18
Overview of the Book 19
Chapter Summary 20
Exercises 20
Further Reading 22
References 22
Part I Languages and Communities 25
2 Languages, Dialects, and Varieties 27
Key Concepts 27
Language or Dialect? 28
Mutual intelligibility 29
The role of social identity 32
Standardization 33
The standard as an abstraction 34
The standardization process 35
The standard and language change 36
Standard English? 36
The standard–dialect hierarchy 37
Regional Dialects 38
Dialect continua 39
Dialect geography 39
Everyone has an accent 40
Social Dialects 42
Kiezdeutsch ‘neighborhood German’ 43
Ethnic dialects 45
African American Vernacular English 46
Features of AAVE 47
Development of AAVE 48
Latino Englishes 50
Styles, Registers, and Genres 52
Style 52
Register 53
Genre 53
Chapter Summary 54
Exercises 54
Further Reading 56
References 57
3 Defining Groups 62
Key Concepts 62
Speech Communities 63
Linguistic boundaries 63
Shared norms 65
Communities of Practice 68
Social Networks 70
Social Identities 72
Beliefs about Language and Social Groups 74
Ideologies 75
Perceptual dialectology 76
Chapter Summary 77
Exercises 77
Further Reading 78
References 79
4 Languages in Contact: Multilingual Societies and Multilingual Discourse 82
Key Concepts 82
Multilingualism as a Societal Phenomenon 83
Competencies and convergence in multilingual societies 84
Language ideologies surrounding multilingualism 85
Linguistic landscapes 86
Language attitudes in multilingual settings 88
Diglossia 90
Domains 91
Language attitudes and ideologies 92
Language learning 93
The statuses of the H and L varieties 93
Extended diglossia and language maintenance 94
Questioning diglossia 95
Multilingual Discourse 96
Metaphorical and situational code-switching 97
Accommodation and audience design 98
The Markedness Model 101
Multilingual identities 102
Chapter Summary 105
Exercises 106
Further Reading 109
References 110
5 Contact Languages: Structural Consequences of Social Factors 114
Key Concepts 114
Lingua Francas 115
Pidgin and Creole Languages: Definitions 116
Connections between P/C languages and second language acquisition 119
Pidgin and Creole Formation 120
Theories of creole genesis 121
Geographical Distribution 123
Linguistic Characteristics of P/C Languages 124
Phonology 125
Morphosyntax 125
Vocabulary 126
From Pidgin to Creole and Beyond 127
Creole continuum? 129
Other Contact Varieties: Mixed Languages 131
Chapter Summary 133
Exercises 133
Further Reading 134
References 134
Part II Inherent Variety 139
6 Language Variation 141
Key Concepts 141
Regional Variation 142
Mapping dialects 142
Methods in dialectology 145
Dialect mixture and free variation 147
Linguistic atlases 147
The Linguistic Variable 148
Variants 149
Types of linguistic variables 149
Variation in New York City 150
Variation in Norwich 150
Variation in Detroit 151
Indicators, markers, and stereotypes 151
Social Variation 152
Social class membership 153
Social networks 157
Data Collection and Analysis 157
The observer’s paradox 157
The sociolinguistic interview 158
Sampling 159
Apparent time and real time 161
Correlations: dependent and independent variables 161
Quantitative sociolinguistics 162
Chapter Summary 165
Exercises 165
Further Reading 166
References 166
7 Three Waves of Variation Studies 169
Key Concepts 169
The First Wave of Variation Studies 170
Early work on gender variation 170
The fourth floor 172
Variation in Norwich 175
Variation in Detroit 177
Variation in Glasgow 180
Linguistic constraints on variation 181
The Second Wave of Variation Studies 185
Social networks in Belfast 185
Gender variation in the second wave 187
Jocks and burnouts 188
The Third Wave of Variation Studies 189
Stance 190
Chapter Summary 192
Exercises 192
Further Reading 193
References 194
8 Language Variation and Change 196
Key Concepts 196
The Traditional View 197
Externally motivated change 197
Trees and waves 199
Some Changes in Progress 199
The Northern Cities Vowel Shift 201
Change across space: urban centers and physical barriers 202
Change over time or age-grading? 203
Martha’s Vineyard 204
Gender and language change 208
Language change and the linguistic marketplace 211
The Process of Change 213
Change from above and below 214
Social network theory and language change 216
Lifestyle and language change 217
Lexical diffusion 218
Chapter Summary 219
Exercises 219
Further Reading 220
References 221
Part III Language and Interaction 225
9 Ethnographic Approaches in Sociolinguistics 227
Key Concepts 227
The Ethnography of Communication 230
Communicative competence 230
SPEAKING 232
Ethnography and beyond 234
Ethnomethodology 235
Background knowledge as part of communication 236
Commonsense knowledge and practical reasoning 237
Garfinkel and his students: studies in ethnomethodology 239
Ethnomethodology and conversation analysis 241
Linguistic Ethnography 241
Chapter Summary 243
Exercises 243
Further Reading 245
References 245
10 Pragmatics 248
Key Concepts 248
Speech Acts 249
Performatives 249
Locutions, illocutionary acts, and perlocutions 251
Implicature 253
Maxims 253
The concept of cooperation 255
Politeness 256
Face 256
Positive and negative politeness 257
Politeness world-wide 258
Politeness and indirectness 261
Pronouns 263
Tu and vous: power and solidarity 263
Pronouns and positioning 266
Naming and Titles 266
Fluidity and change in address terms 269
Chinese comrades 270
Chapter Summary 272
Exercises 272
Further Reading 275
References 276
11 Discourse Analysis 280
Key Concepts 280
Conversation Analysis 281
Adjacency pairs 283
Openings 284
Closings 285
Turn-taking 287
Repair 289
Institutional talk 290
Interactional Sociolinguistics 291
Data and methodologies 293
Contextualization 295
Stance 296
Intercultural communication 297
Critical Discourse Analysis 298
Contrasts and critiques 299
Methodologies and connections 299
Chapter Summary 302
Exercises 303
Further Reading 304
References 305
Part IV Sociolinguistics and Social Justice 309
12 Language, Gender, and Sexuality 311
Key Concepts 311
Defining Terms: Gender, Sex Category, and Sexuality 312
Sexist Language 314
Grammatical gender marking 315
Language change 316
Discourses of Gender and Sexuality 319
Some common Discourses 319
Deficit, Dominance, Difference, and Identities 321
Women’s language 324
Dominance 324
Difference 325
Gender and sexuality identities 328
Chapter Summary 332
Exercises 332
Further Reading 333
References 334
13 Sociolinguistics and Education 339
Key Concepts 339
Social Dialects and Education 341
Restricted and elaborated codes 341
Difference not deficit 343
Role of the home dialect in education 345
African American Vernacular English and education 346
Applied sociolinguistics 350
Multilingual Education 351
Ideologies 351
Use of minority languages in the classroom 352
Elite and immigrant bilingualism 354
Education and World-Wide English 356
Circles of English 356
Elite closure 357
English in Europe 359
Chapter Summary 360
Exercises 360
Further Reading 361
References 362
14 Language Policy and Planning 367
Key Concepts 367
Terminology, Concepts, and Development of the Field 367
Types of language planning 368
The intellectual history of LPP 371
Data and methods 372
LPP and Nationalization 373
LPP in Turkey: orthography and purity 373
LPP in the Soviet Union and the post-Soviet era: from Russification to nationalization 375
Official monolingualism in France 377
Multilingual policy in Belgium 377
LPP in Post- and Neo-Colonial Contexts 378
Kenya 379
India 380
LPP in the United States and Canada 381
The United States of America 381
Canada 383
Multilingual Countries and LPP 385
Papua New Guinea 385
Singapore 386
Endangered Languages and the Spread of English 387
Endangered languages 387
English world-wide 388
Chapter Summary 392
Exercises 392
Further Reading 392
References 393
Glossary 398
Index 422
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