Language Endangerment And Language Revitalization

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ISBN: 9783110184297 | 311018429X
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 3/30/2006

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In almost every part of the world, minority languages are being threatened with extinction. At the same time, dedicated efforts are being made to document endangered languages, to maintain them, and even to revive once-extinct languages. The book presents a comprehensive overview of language endangerment and revitalization. Among the examined aspects are: degrees of endangerment, definitions of language death, causes of endangerment, types of speakers in endangerment situations, and methods of documentation. The book is of interest to a wide readership, including linguists, anthropologists, sociologists, and educators. Key Features: The very successful hardcover now available in an affordable paperback edition. Ideal as an introductory text to the study of endangered languages, one of the fastest growing areas in linguistics. Of relevance to linguists from all fields, from phonology to semantics.

Preface

Acknowledgements

vii

List of tables and figures

xxii

List of abbreviations

xxiii

List of photos and map

xxvi

1. Introduction

(8)

1.1. Introductory notes

(1)

1.2. Origin and development of language

(2)

1.3. Language loss: a brief history

(2)

1.3.1. Language loss in the pre-European colonial period

(1)

1.3.2. Language loss in the post-European colonial period

(1)

1.4. Dialects, migrant languages, and enclave languages

(1)

1.5. Notes on terminology

(1)

1.6. Summary of Chapter 1

(2)

2. Degree of language endangerment

(7)

2.1. Introductory notes

(1)

2.2. Previous classifications

(4)

2.3. Terms employed

(2)

2.4. Summary of Chapter 2

(1)

3. Current state of language endangerment

(13)

3.1. Introductory notes

(1)

3.2. Current state worldwide

(1)

3.3. Ainu of Japan

(1)

3.4. Austronesian languages

(2)

3.4.1. Maaori of New Zealand

(1)

3.4.2. Other languages of the Austronesian family

(1)

3.5. Languages of Australia

(1)

3.6. Languages of South America

(1)

3.7. Languages of Central America

(1)

3.8. Languages of North America

(1)

3.9. Languages of the former USSR

(1)

3.10. Languages of Northern Europe

(1)

3.11. Celtic languages

(1)

3.12. Languages of Africa

(1)

3.13. Languages of India and neighbouring regions

(1)

3.14. Languages of China and neighbouring regions

(1)

3.15. Summary of Chapter 3

(1)

4. Approaches to language endangerment

(7)

4.1. Introductory notes

(1)

4.2. Language documentation approach

(1)

4.3. Language endangerment phenomenon approach

(4)

4.3.1. Characterization of the approach

(1)

4.3.2. Negligence of the language endangerment phenomenon

(1)

4.3.3. Interest in the language endangerment phenomenon

(2)

4.3.4. History of research in the language endangerment phenomenon approach

(1)

4.4. Models of language endangerment

(2)

4.5. Summary of Chapter 4

(1)

5. Definitions and types of language death

(13)

5.1. Introductory notes

(1)

5.2. Definitions of language death

(6)

5.3. Types of language death

(6)

5.3.1. Introduction

(1)

5.3.2. Classification in terms of cause

(2)

5.3.3. Classification in terms of speed

(1)

5.3.4. Combination of cause and speed

(2)

5.3.5. Classification in terms of register involved in language death

(1)

5.4. Summary of Chapter 5

(1)

6. External setting of language endangerment

(16)

6.1. Introductory notes

(1)

6.2. Ecology of language

(8)

6.3. Causes of language endangerment

(7)

6.4. Summary of Chapter 6

(1)

7. Speech behaviour: sociolinguistic aspects of language endangerment

(11)

7.1. Introductory notes

(1)

7.2. Functional domains

(5)

7.2.1. Preliminaries

(1)

7.2.2. Types of functional domains

(4)

7.3. Language shift

(5)

7.3.1. Theory of language shift

(3)

7.3.2. The third generation in language shift

(1)

7.3.3. Bilingualism and language shift

(1)

7.3.4. Language shift: language suicide or language murder?

(1)

7.4. Summary of Chapter 7

(1)

8. Structural changes in language endangerment

(41)

8.1. Introductory notes

(1)

8.2. Dyirbal of Australia

(20)

8.2.1. Introduction

(1)

8.2.2. Phonology

(1)

8.2.2.1. Phonemes of Traditional Dyirbal

(1)

8.2.2.2. Sound system of Young Dyirbal

(1)

8.2.3. Ergativity: introduction and illustration

(3)

8.2.4. Morphology

(4)

8.2.4.1. Ergative case

(4)

8.2.4.2. Locative case

(1)

8.2.5. Syntax: syntactic ergativity

(6)

8.2.5.1. Syntactic ergativity and accusativity: illustration

(3)

8.2.5.2. Decline of syntactic ergativity in Young Dyirbal

(2)

8.2.5.3. Ergativity in Young Dyirbal: summary

(1)

8.2.6. Semantics: changes in noun classification

(2)

8.2.6.1. Noun class system of Traditional Dyirbal

(1)

8.2.6.2. Membership changes in Young Dyirbal noun classification

(1)

8.2.7. Lexicon

(4)

8.2.7.1. Vocabulary test

(1)

8.2.7.2. Vocabulary areas resistant to loss

(1)

8.2.7.3. Utilization of the limited vocabulary in Young Dyirbal

(1)

8.3. Loss of the avoidance style in Warrungu (Australia)

(1)

8.4. Discussion

(18)

8.4.1. Introduction

(1)

8.4.2. Causes of structural changes

(1)

8.4.3. Occurrence/non-occurrence and types of structural changes

(2)

8.4.4. Brief overview of structural changes

101

(8)

8.4.4.1. Introduction

101

(1)

8.4.4.2. Phonology

101

(1)

8.4.4.3. Morphology

102

(2)

8.4.4.4. Syntax

104

(2)

8.4.4.5. Discourse

106

(1)

8.4.4.6. Lexicon and semantics

107

(1)

8.4.4.7. Registers/speech styles

107

(1)

8.4.4.8. Are there universals?

108

(1)

8.4.5. Comparison with other phenomena

109

(8)

8.4.5.1. Introduction

109

(1)

8.4.5.2. Pidgins and creoles

110

(3)

8.4.5.3. The other phenomena

113

(3)

8.5. Summary of Chapter 8

116

(1)

9. Typology of speakers

117

(17)

9.1. Introductory notes

117

(1)

9.2. Preliminaries

117

(3)

9.2.1. Classification of community members

117

(2)

9.2.2. Dominance configuration in bilingualism

119

(1)

9.3. Previous classifications

120

(2)

9.4. Proposed classifications

122

(7)

9.4.1. Classification in terms of proficiency

122

(4)

9.4.1.1. Degree and type of proficiency

122

(3)

9.4.1.2. Period of proficiency

125

(1)

9.4.2. Classification in terms of acquisition of the language

126

(1)

9.4.3. Classification in terms of use of the language

127

(1)

9.4.4. Classification in terms of the age of speakers

128

(1)

9.5. Semi-speakers

129

(1)

9.6. Proficiency: discussion

130

(3)

9.7. Summary of Chapter 9

133

(1)

10. Value of linguistic heritage

134

(34)

10.1. Introductory notes

134

(1)

10.2. Concern for language endangerment

134

(23)

10.2.1. Introduction

134

(1)

10.2.2. Community's views

135

(8)

10.2.2.1. Overview

135

(1)

10.2.2.2. Language as a gift from the ancestral beings

136

(1)

10.2.2.3. Language as a connection to the ancestors and land

137

(1)

10.2.2.4. Language as irreplaceable cultural knowledge, and as a conveyor of culture

138

(1)

10.2.2.5. Language as ethnolinguistic skills

139

(1)

10.2.2.6. Language as a determiner of identity

140

(1)

10.2.2.7. Language as a source of pride and self-esteem

141

(1)

10.2.2.8. Language as a source of solidarity

141

(1)

10.2.2.9. Language as a source of sovereignty

142

(1)

10.2.2.10. Beauty of the language

142

(1)

10.2.2.11. For future generations

142

(1)

10.2.3. Language activist's view: Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights

143

(3)

10.2.4. Linguists' view

146

(11)

10.2.4.1. Introduction

146

(1)

10.2.4.2. The community's wish

147

(1)

10.2.4.3. For better understanding

147

(1)

10.2.4.4. Language as irreplaceable cultural knowledge, and as a conveyor of culture

148

(4)

10.2.4.5. Language products as invaluable cultural heritage

152

(1)

10.2.4.6. Linguistic diversity

152

(5)

10.3. The other side of the concern for language endangerment

157

(4)

10.3.1. Introduction

157

(1)

10.3.2. Lack of concern for language endangerment

158

(2)

10.3.3. Linguistic rights

160

(1)

10.3.4. Linguistic diversity

161

(1)

10.4. Language, culture, and identity

161

(5)

10.4.1. Introduction

161

(1)

10.4.2. What is lost when a language is lost? What remains after a language is lost?

162

(1)

10.4.3. Is it possible to be Xmen without Xish7

163

(3)

10.5. Summary of Chapter 10

166

(2)

11. Language revitalization: maintenance and revival

168

(48)

11.1. Introductory notes

168

(1)

11.2. Can languages be revitalized?

169

(4)

11.3. Strategies for language revitalization

173

(6)

11.3.1. What to revitalize: language alone, or language-and-culture?

173

(1)

11.3.2. Levels of language revitalization: the societal level and the individual level

174

(5)

11.3.2.1. The societal level

175

(3)

11.3.2.2. The individual level

178

(1)

11.4. Problems encountered in language revitalization activities

179

(21)

11.4.1. Introduction

179

(1)

11.4.2. Problems and possible remedies

180

(14)

11.4.3. Confusion over writing systems

194

(5)

11.4.3.1. Introduction

194

(1)

11.4.3.2. Writing system suggested for Warrungu

195

(2)

11.4.3.3. Problems in writing systems

197

(2)

11.4.4. Further suggestions for language revitalization activities

199

(1)

11.5. Types of language revitalization programs

200

(15)

11.5.1. Introduction

200

(2)

11.5.2. Immersion method

202

(1)

11.5.3. Neighbourhood method

203

(1)

11.5.4. Bilingual method

204

(1)

11.5.5. Master-apprentice method

205

(2)

11.5.6. Total physical response (TPR) method

207

(1)

11.5.7. Telephone method

207

(1)

11.5.8. Radio method

208

(1)

11.5.9. Multimedia method: internet and CDs

208

(1)

11.5.10. Two-way education method

209

(1)

11.5.11. Formulaic method

209

(1)

11.5.12. Artificial pidgin method

210

(1)

11.5.13. Place name method

210

(1)

11.5.14. Language reclamation method

211

(2)

11.5.15. Adoption method

213

(1)

11.5.16. Methods of language revitalization: discussion

214

(1)

11.6. Summary of Chapter 11

215

(1)

12. Role and ethics of researchers

216

(13)

12.1. Introductory notes

216

(1)

12.2. Academic exploitation: communities' reactions and researchers' responses

216

(8)

12.2.1. Academic exploitation in general

216

(1)

12.2.2. Aim of documentation of endangered languages

217

(1)

12.2.3. Reactions by communities

218

(3)

12.2.4. Researchers' responses: ethical codes

221

(3)

12.3. Role of linguists

224

(4)

12.3.1. Introduction

224

(1)

12.3.2. Role of linguists (1): in relation to the community

224

(3)

12.3.3. Role of linguists (2): in relation to the general public

227

(1)

12.3.4. Role of linguists (3): in relation to the whole linguistic profession

227

(1)

12.4. Summary of Chapter 12

228

(1)

13. Method of documentation and training of fieldworkers

229

(24)

13.1. Introductory notes

229

(1)

13.2. Method of documentation

229

(18)

13.2.1. Introduction

229

(1)

13.2.2. Quality of documentation

229

(2)

13.2.3. Holistic approach

231

(2)

13.2.4. Lehmann's and Himmelmann's programs

233

(2)

13.2.5. Fieldwork manuals, questionnaires, and memoirs

235

(1)

13.2.6. Data collection procedure

236

(1)

13.2.7. Fieldwork on endangered languages

237

(8)

13.2.8. Research results: triad (grammar, vocabulary, texts) and raw data

245

(2)

13.3. Training of fieldworkers

247

(5)

13.3.1. Introduction

247

(1)

13.3.2. Content of documentation

247

(4)

13.3.2.1. Well-balanced program

248

(1)

13.3.2.2. General linguistics and specific linguistics

249

(1)

13.3.2.3. Linguistic theory

249

(2)

13.3.3. Social context of fieldwork

251

(1)

13.4. Summary of Chapter 13

252

(1)

14. Concluding remarks

253

(2)

References

255

(33)

Index of languages

288

(4)

Index of persons and authors

292

(7)

Index of subjects

299

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Language Endangerment And Language Revitalization

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