Leisure and Tourism Policy and Planning

The aim of this book is to provide a comprehensive, multidisciplinary introduction to public policy and planning in the broad field of leisure and tourism. It includes theoretical perspectives and practical guidelines for the application of a range of analytical techniques, encompassing planning methods, demand forecasting, cost-benefit analysis and performance appraisal. It is an updated edition of Leisure Policy and Planning (Longman, 1994), which has now been expanded to cover tourism as well.

A. J. (Tony) Veal is Associate Professor in the School of Leisure, Sport and Tourism, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia.

List of Tables

x

List of Figures

xii

Preface

xiv

Introduction

1

(10)

Introduction

1

(1)

Governments and Leisure and Tourism

1

(2)

Leisure and Tourism

3

(1)

Policy-making and Planning

4

(2)

Government Roles

6

(1)

Perspective

6

(3)

Content and Structure of the Book

9

(1)

Summary

10

(1)

Leisure and Tourism: Rights, Needs and Citizenship

11

(24)

Introduction

11

(1)

Human Rights

11

(13)

Definitions

11

(1)

History

11

(2)

Human rights declarations

13

(1)

Leisure rights

13

(2)

Sporting rights

15

(1)

Artistic and cultural rights

16

(3)

Tourism and travel rights

19

(1)

Group rights

19

(3)

Meaningfulness of rights declarations

22

(1)

Rights and freedoms

22

(1)

Other rights

23

(1)

The Rights of the Citizen

24

(3)

Needs

27

(6)

Taylor - uses of the word `need'

28

(1)

Bradshaw / Mercer typology of need

28

(1)

Maslow's hierarchy of need

29

(2)

Motivation theory and need

31

(1)

Marxist and neo-Marxist views on needs

31

(1)

Doyal and Gough and universal needs

32

(1)

Summary: Rights, Needs and Public Policy

33

(2)

Political Ideologies and the Role of the State

35

(18)

Introduction: the Role of Ideology

35

(2)

Conservatism

37

(2)

Liberalism

39

(2)

Marxism

41

(2)

Democratic Socialism

43

(1)

Social Democracy and `Third-way' Politics

44

(2)

Feminism

46

(1)

Environmentalism

47

(1)

Antiglobalism

48

(2)

Summary: Ideologies, Leisure, Tourism and the State

50

(3)

The Market versus the State

53

(20)

Introduction

53

(1)

The Triumph of Capitalism

53

(1)

Mainstream Economics

54

(2)

Introduction

54

(1)

The workings of the market

54

(1)

The role of the state

55

(1)

Types of Market Failure

56

(6)

Public goods and services

57

(1)

Externalities / neighbourhood effects

58

(1)

Mixed goods

59

(1)

Merit goods

60

(1)

Option demand

61

(1)

Infant industries

61

(1)

Size of project

61

(1)

Natural monopoly

61

(1)

Market failure in summary

62

(1)

Social/Political Arguments for Government Involvement

62

(5)

Equity / humanitarian

62

(4)

Economic management / development

66

(1)

Incidental enterprise

66

(1)

Tradition

67

(1)

Mainstream Economics and Ideology

67

(1)

The Market versus the State - Issues

67

(3)

Profit-making or loss-making?

67

(1)

Government failure / government size

68

(1)

Provider or facilitator?

68

(1)

The context of globalization

69

(1)

The Market vs. the State - Recent History

70

(1)

Summary

71

(2)

Public Policy-making

73

(15)

Introduction

73

(1)

Formal Constitutions

73

(5)

Unitary vs. federal systems

74

(1)

Westminster vs. presidential models

74

(1)

The location of leisure and tourism

75

(1)

Formal decision-making procedures

76

(1)

Quangos, trusts, the non-profit sector, etc.

76

(2)

Models of Decision-making

78

(6)

Power-based models

78

(4)

Rationality models

82

(1)

Public choice

83

(1)

Institutional approaches

84

(1)

Personality, cognition and information processing

84

(1)

Urban Regimes and Governance of the Local State

84

(2)

Summary

86

(2)

Leisure and Tourism Plans and Planning

88

(28)

Introduction

88

(1)

Strategic Planning

88

(1)

Guidelines

89

(1)

Local Cultural Strategies

90

(1)

Outdoor Recreation and Open Space

91

(1)

The Strategic Planning Process

91

(23)

Step 1. Establish terms of reference/brief

92

(3)

Step 2. Environmental appraisal

95

(6)

Step 3. Establish mission/goals

101

(6)

Step 4. Consultation with stakeholders

107

(2)

Step 5. Develop options

109

(1)

Step 6. Decide strategy

110

(3)

Step 7. Implementation

113

(1)

Steps 8/9. Monitoring, evaluation and feedback

113

(1)

Land-use Planning

114

(2)

Planning Methods

116

(38)

Introduction

116

(1)

History

116

(1)

Planning Techniques and Approaches

116

(32)

Standards of provision

118

(4)

Resource-based planning

122

(1)

Gross demand/market share (GDMS) approach

122

(5)

Spatial approaches

127

(5)

Hierarchies of facilities

132

(1)

Priority social-area analysis

133

(3)

The recreation opportunity spectrum

136

(1)

The matrix approach

137

(4)

The organic approach

141

(3)

The community-development approach

144

(2)

The issues approach

146

(1)

Conclusion

147

(1)

Summary

148

(2)

Appendix 7.1. Estimation of Facility Capacities

150

(2)

Appendix 7.2. Measuring Levels of Use of Facilities

152

(2)

Forecasting Leisure and Tourism Demand

154

(31)

Introduction

154

(1)

Forecasting What?

155

(2)

Demand-change Factors

157

(11)

Leisure and work time

158

(1)

Demographic change

159

(1)

Income levels

159

(2)

Transport

161

(1)

Technological change

162

(2)

The activities of producers

164

(1)

The environment

164

(1)

Changing tastes and lifestyles

165

(1)

Changing attitudes and values

166

(1)

The media

167

(1)

Postindustrialism, postmodernity and globalization

167

(1)

Forecasting Techniques

168

(15)

Informed speculation

168

(1)

Asking the public

169

(1)

Asking the experts - the Delphi technique

169

(1)

Scenario writing

170

(2)

Time-series analysis

172

(4)

Spatial models

176

(1)

Cross-sectional analysis

177

(5)

Comparative method

182

(1)

Composite approaches

183

(1)

Summary

183

(2)

Economic Evaluation Techniques

185

(26)

Introduction

185

(1)

Cost-Benefit Analysis

186

(16)

Introduction

186

(1)

Measurables and unmeasurables

187

(1)

The cost-benefit approach

187

(2)

Identifying and measuring costs

189

(3)

Identifying and measuring benefits in general

192

(2)

Comparing costs and benefits

194

(2)

Measuring private benefits - travel-cost and other methods

196

(5)

The value of time

201

(1)

Conclusion

202

(1)

Economic-impact Analysis

202

(6)

Introduction

202

(1)

Counting the cost

203

(1)

The multiplier

203

(3)

Economic significance studies

206

(2)

Summary

208

(2)

Appendix 9.1: Multiplier Analysis Spreadsheet

210

(1)

Performance Evaluation

211

(27)

Introduction

211

(1)

Evaluation in Context

211

(3)

Steps in the Evaluation Process

214

(1)

Approaches

215

(6)

Best value

215

(2)

The benefits approach to leisure

217

(2)

Customer service

219

(1)

Importance-performance analysis

220

(1)

Applications in Leisure and Tourism

221

(8)

Community recreation

222

(1)

Arts, cultural venues and events

222

(1)

Sports facilities

222

(7)

Tourism

229

(1)

Goals and Performance Indices

229

(7)

Summary

236

(2)

Policy and Planning for Particular Sectors and Groups

238

(18)

Introduction

238

(1)

Leisure and Tourism Sectors

238

(10)

Sport and physical recreation

238

(3)

The arts

241

(3)

Outdoor recreation - natural areas

244

(1)

Urban outdoor recreation

245

(1)

Tourism

246

(2)

Groups

248

(6)

Women

249

(1)

Ethnic groups

250

(1)

People with disabilities

251

(1)

Children

252

(1)

Youth

252

(1)

The elderly

253

(1)

Finally

254

(1)

Summary

254

(2)

Bibliography

256

(21)

Author Index

277

(6)

Subject Index

283

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Leisure and Tourism Policy and Planning

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials