EXPLORING WRITING: PARAGRAPHS AND ESSAYS, 3/e

By John Langan

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE xxii

PART ONE: WRITING: SKILLS AND PROCESS 2

1. An Introduction to Writing 4

Point and Support 5

An Important Difference between Writing and Talking 5

Point and Support in a Paragraph 6

Knowing Your Purpose and Audience 8

Benefits of Paragraph Writing 9

Writing as a Skill 9

Writing as a Process of Discovery 11

Keeping a Journal 12

Tips on Using a Computer 14

Ways to Use a Computer at Each Stage of the Writing Process 15

2. The Writing Process 19

Prewriting 20

Technique 1: Freewriting 20

Technique 2: Questioning 23

Technique 3: Making a List 24

Technique 4: Clustering 26

Technique 5: Preparing a Scratch Outline 27

Writing a First Draft 28

Writing a First Draft: A Student Model 29

Revising 30

Revising Content 31

Revising Sentences 31

Editing 31

An Illustration of the Revising and Editing Processes 32

Using Peer Review 34

Identification 35

Scratch Outline 35

Comments 35

Review Activities 36

Taking a Writing Inventory 36

Prewriting 38

Outlining 40

Revising 46

PART TWO: BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE WRITING 52

3. The First and Second Steps in Writing 54

Step 1: Begin with a Point 55

Identifying Common Errors in Topic Sentences 57

Understanding the Two Parts of a Topic Sentence 59

Selecting a Topic Sentence 61

Writing a Topic Sentence I 62

Writing a Topic Sentence II 64

Step 2: Support the Point with Specific Evidence 65

The Point as an “Umbrella” Idea 66

Reinforcing Point and Support 68

The Importance of Specific Details 71

Recognizing Specific Details 71

Providing Supporting Evidence 74

The Importance of Adequate Details 75

Identifying Adequate Supporting Evidence 77

Adding Details to Complete a Paragraph 80

Writing a Paragraph 81

4. The Third and Fourth Steps in Writing 84

Step 3: Organize and Connect the Specific Evidence 85

Common Methods of Organization: Time Order and Emphatic Order 85

Transitions 90

Other Connecting Words 96

Step 4: Write Clear, Error-Free Sentences 99

Revising Sentences 99

Editing Sentences 117

5. Four Bases for Revising Writing 120

Base 1: Unity 121

Understanding Unity 121

Checking for Unity 123

Base 2: Support 127

Understanding Support 127

Checking for Support 128

Base 3: Coherence 130

Understanding Coherence 130

Checking for Coherence 132

Base 4: Sentence Skills 136

Understanding Sentence Skills 136

Checking for Sentence Skills 139

Evaluating Paragraphs for All Four Bases: Unity, Support, Coherence, and Sentence Skills 140

PART THREE: PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT 146

6. Exemplification 148

Paragraphs to Consider 149

Developing an Exemplification Paragraph 151

Development through Prewriting 151

Development through Revising 153

Writing an Exemplification Paragraph 153

7. Narration 159

Paragraphs to Consider 160

Developing a Narrative Paragraph 162

Development through Prewriting 162

Development through Revising 163

Writing a Narrative Paragraph 164

8. Description 168

Paragraphs to Consider 169

Developing a Descriptive Paragraph 171

Development through Prewriting 171

Development through Revising 173

Writing a Descriptive Paragraph 173

9. Process 179

Paragraphs to Consider 180

Developing a Process Paragraph 182

Development through Prewriting 182

Development through Revising 184

Writing a Process Paragraph 184

10. Cause and Effect 189

Paragraphs to Consider 190

Developing a Cause-and-Effect Paragraph 191

Development through Prewriting 191

Development through Revising 193

Writing a Cause-and-Effect Paragraph 193

11. Comparison or Contrast 198

Paragraphs to Consider 199

Methods of Development 200

One Side at a Time 200

Point by Point 201

Additional Paragraph to Consider 204

Developing a Comparison or Contrast Paragraph 205

Development through Prewriting 205

Development through Revising 207

Writing a Comparison or Contrast Paragraph 208

12. Definition 212

Paragraphs to Consider 213

Developing a Definition Paragraph 215

Development through Prewriting 215

Development through Revising 217

Writing a Definition Paragraph 217

13. Division-Classification 222

Paragraphs to Consider 223

Developing a Division-Classification Paragraph 226

Development through Prewriting 226

Development through Revising 228

Writing a Division-Classification Paragraph 229

Argument 233

Strategies for Arguments 234

Use Tactful, Courteous Language 234

Point Out Common Ground 235

Acknowledge Differing Viewpoints 235

When Appropriate, Grant the Merits of Differing Viewpoints 235

Rebut Differing Viewpoints 235

Paragraphs to Consider 238

Developing an Argument Paragraph 240

Development through Prewriting 240

Development through Revising 243

Writing an Argument Paragraph 244

PART FOUR: ESSAY DEVELOPMENT 252

15. Introduction to Essay Development 254

What Is an Essay? 255

Differences Between an Essay and Paragraph 255

Structure of the Traditional Essay 255

A Model Essay 255

Parts of an Essay 256

Introductory Paragraph 256

Body: Supporting Paragraphs 257

Concluding Paragraph 258

Diagram of an Essay 259

Identifying the Parts of an Essay 260

Important Considerations in Essay Development 262

Determining Your Point of View 262

Doing a Personal Review 264

16.Writing the Essay 265

Step 1: Begin with a Point, or Thesis 266

Understanding Thesis Statements 266

Writing a Good Thesis I 266

Writing a Good Thesis II 268

Step 2: Support the Thesis with Specific Evidence 273

The Importance of Specific Details 275

The Importance of Adequate Details 276

Adding Details to Complete an Essay 276

Step 3: Organize and Connect the Specific Evidence 278

Common Methods of Organization 278

Transitions 280

Other Connecting Words 283

Identifying Transitions and Other Connecting Words 283

Step 4: Write Clear, Error-Free Sentences 284

Use Active Verbs 285

Practice in Revising Sentences 286

Revising Essays for All Four Bases: Unity, Support, Coherence, and Sentence Skills 291

17. Introductions, Conclusions, and Titles 295

Introductory Paragraph 296

Functions of the Introduction 296

Common Methods of Introduction 296

Concluding Paragraph 299

Common Methods of Conclusion 299

Identifying Introductions and Conclusions 301

Titles 302

Essay Writing Assignments 304

18. Patterns of Essay Development 309

Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Exemplification 310

Considering Purpose and Audience 310

Student Essay to Consider 310

Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Exemplification 313

Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Narration 314

Considering Purpose and Audience 315

Student Essay to Consider 315

Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Narration 318

Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Description 319

Considering Purpose and Audience 319

Student Essay to Consider 319

Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Description 322

Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Process 323

Considering Purpose and Audience 323

Student Essay to Consider 323

Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Process 326

Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Cause and/or Effect 327

Considering Purpose and Audience 327

Student Essay to Consider 327

Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Cause and/or Effect 329

Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Comparison and/or Contrast 330

Considering Purpose and Audience 330

Student Essay to Consider 331

Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Comparison and/or Contrast 333

Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Definition 334

Considering Purpose and Audience 334

Student Essay to Consider 334

Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Definition 337

Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Division and Classification 341

Considering Purpose and Audience 338

Student Essay to Consider 338

Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Division and Classification 341

Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Argument 342

Considering Purpose and Audience 342

Student Essay to Consider 342

Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Argument 345

19. Special College Skills 346

Taking Essay Exams 347

Step 1: Anticipate Ten Probable Questions 347

Step 2: Prepare and Memorize an Informal Outline Answer for Each Question 348

Step 3: Look at the Exam Carefully and Do Several Things 349

Step 4: Prepare a Brief, Informal Outline before Writing Your Essay Answer 351

Step 5: Write a Clear, Well-Organized Essay 351

Writing a Summary 353

How to Summarize an Article 354

How to Summarize a Book 362

Writing a Report 363

Part 1 of a Report: A Summary of the Work 363

Part 2 of a Report: Your Reaction to the Work 363

Points to Keep in Mind When Writing a Report 364

A Model Report 364

20. Writing a Research Paper 367

Step 1: Select a Topic That You Can Readily Research 368

Researching at a Local Library 368

Researching on the Internet 368

Step 2: Limit Your Topic and Make the Purpose of Your Paper Clear 368

Step 3: Gather Information on Your Limited Topic 369

Step 4: Plan Your Paper and Take Notes on Your Limited Topic 370

Preparing a Scratch Outline 370

Note-Taking 371

A Caution about Plagiarism 372

Step 5: Write the Paper 375

Step 6: Use an Acceptable Format and Method of Documentation 375

Format 375

Documentation of Sources 375

Citation within a Paper 376

Citations at the End of a Paper 376

Model Entries for a List of "Works Cited" 377

Model Paper 379

PART FIVE: HANDBOOK OF SENTENCE SKILLS 392

SECTION I: GRAMMAR 394

21.Subjects and Verbs 395

A Simple Way to Find a Subject 395

A Simple Way to Find a Verb 395

More about Subjects and Verbs 396

22.Sentence Sense 400

What is Sentence Sense? 400

Turning On Your Sentence Sense 400

Summary: Using Sentence Sense 402

23.Fragments 403

Dependent-Word Fragments 403

How to Correct a Depedent-Word Fragment 404

-ing and to Fragments 406

How to Correct -ing Fragments 407

How to Correct to Fragments 407

Added-Detail Fragments 409

How to Correct Missing-Subject Fragments 409

Missing-Subject Fragments 411

How to Correct Missing-Subject Fragments 411

24.Run-Ons 415

What are Run-Ons? 415

How to Correct Run-Ons? 416

Method 1: Period and a Capital Letter 416

Method 2: Comma and a Joining Word 417

Method 3: Semicolon 420

A Note on Subordination 422

25.Regular and Irregular Verbs 426

Regular Verbs 426

A Brief Review of Regular Verbs 426

Nonstandard Forms of Regular Verbs 426

Irregular Verbs 428

A List of Irregular Verbs 428

Nonstandard Forms of Three Common Irregular Verbs 431

26.Subject-Verb Agreement 434

Words between Subject and Verb 434

Verb before Subject 435

Compound Subjects 435

Indefinite Pronouns 436

27.Additional Information about Verbs 439

Verb Tense 439

Helping Verbs 440

Verbals 441

Infinitive 441

Participle 441

Gerund 441

28.Pronoun Agreement and Reference 443

Pronoun Agreement 443

Indefinite Pronouns 444

Pronoun Reference 445

29.Pronoun Types 448

Subject and Object Pronouns 448

Subject Pronouns 448

Object Pronouns 450

Possessive Pronouns 451

Demonstrative Pronouns 452

30.Adjectives and Adverbs 454

Adjectives 454

What are Adjectives? 454

Using Adjectives to Compare 455

Points to Remember about Comparing 455

Adverbs 456

What are Adverbs? 456

A Common Mistake with Adverbs and Adjectives 456

Well and Good 457

31.Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers 459

Misplaced Modifiers 459

Dangling Modifiers 460

SECTION II: MECHANICS 469

32.Manuscript Form 470

33.Capital Letters 472

Main Uses of Capital Letters 472

First Word in a Sentence or Direct Quotation 472

Names and Titles 472

Other Uses of Capital Letters 474

Names that Show Family Relationships 474

Titles of Persons When Used with Their Names 475

Specific School Courses 475

Languages 475

Geographic Locations 475

Historical Periods and Events 475

Races, Nations, and Nationalities 476

Opening and Closing of a Letter 476

Unnecessary Use of Capitals 476

34.Numbers and Abbreviations 479

Numbers 479

Rule 1 479

Rule 2 479

Rule 3 479

Abbreviations 480

SECTION III: PUNCTUATION 484

35.Apostrophe 485

Apostrophe in Contractions 485

Apostrophe to Show Ownership or Possession 486

Points to Remember 486

Apostrophe versus Possessive Pronouns 488

Apostrophe verus Simple Plurals 488

Apostrophe with Plurals Ending in -s 489

36.Quotation Marks 491

Quotation Marks to Set Off the Words of a Speaker or Writer 491

Indirect Quotations 493

Quotation Marks to Set Off Titles of Short Works 494

Other Uses of Quotations Marks 495

37.Comma 498

Six Main Uses of the Comma 498

1. Comma between Items in a Series 498

2. Comma after Introductory Material 499

3. Comma around Words That Interrupt the Flow of Thought 500

4. Comma between Complete Thoughts 501

5. Comma with Direct Quotations 502

6. Comma with Everyday Material 503

38.Other Punctuation Marks 506

Colon (:) 506

Semicolon (;) 506

Dash (-) 507

Parentheses () 507

Hyphen (-) 508

SECTION IV: WORD USE 512

39.Spelling Improvement 513

Step 1: Use the Dictionary 513

Step 2: Keep a Personal Spelling List 513

Step 3: Master Commonly Confused Words 514

Step 4: Learn Key Words in Major Subjects 514

Step 5: Study a Basic Word List 514

Step 6: Use Electronic Aids 516

40.Commonly Confused Words 517

Homonyms 517

Other Words Frequently Confused 521

41.Effective Word Choice 526

Slang 526

Cliches 527

Inflated Words 529

42.Editing Tests 532

43.ESL Pointers 545

Articles with Count and Noncount Nouns 545

Using a or an with Nonspecific Singular Count Nouns 546

Using the with Specific Nouns 546

Omitting Articles 547

Using the with Proper Nouns 547

Subjects and Verbs 549

Avoiding Repeated Subjects 549

Including Pronoun Subjects and Linking Verbs 549

Including There and Here at the Beginning of Clauses 549

Not Using the Progressive Tense of Certain Verbs 550

Using Only Transitive Verbs for the Passive Voice 550

Using Gerunds and Infinitives after Verbs 550

Adjectives 553

Following the Order of Adjectives in English 553

Using the Present and Past Participles as Adjectives 554

Prepositions Used for Time and Place 555

PART SIX: READINGS FOR WRITERS 564

Introduction to the Readings 566

The Format of Each Selection 566

How to Read Well: Four General Steps 567

1.Concentrate as You Read 567

2.Skim Material before You Read It 567

3.Read the Selection Straight Through with a Pen in Hand 568

4.Work with the Material 568

How to Answer the Comprehension Questions: Specific Hints 569

Looking Inward 570

Shame, Dick Gregory 570

The Professor is a Dropout, Beth Johnson 576

Superman and Me, Sherman Alexie 585

Prison Studies, Malcom X 590

Straw into Gold: The Metamorphosis of the Everyday, Sandra Cisneros 595

Mother Tongue, Amy Tan 601

Observing Others 609

What's Wrong with Schools?, Casey Banas 609

Propaganda Techniques in Today's Advertising, Ann McClintock 614

This is How We Live, Ellen DeGeneres 622

Advice to Youth, Mark Twain 629

Start By Sitting Together, Randy Pausch 634

Inaugural Address, John F. Kennedy 638

Neat People vs. Sloppy People, Suzanne Brit (book excerpt) 644

Petophila, Jon Katz 649

Confronting Problems 655

How to Make It in College, Now That You’re Here, Brian O’Keeney 655

In Praise of the F Word, Mary Sherry 664

Is Sex All That Matters?, Joyce Garity 669

Cyberbullying, Thomas J. Billitteri 676

Why Profiling Won’t Work, William Raspberry 683

Here's to Your Health, Joan Dunayer 688

APPENDIX A: Writing a Resume and Cover Letter

APPENDIX B: Writing a Formal E-mail 695

APPENDIX C: Transition Words and Phrases 696

CREDITS 697

INDEX 699

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