Metal Vapour Lasers Physics, Engineering and Applications

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ISBN: 9780471973874 | 0471973874
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 3/12/1999

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Metal Vapour Lasers Christopher E. Little University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Scotland Since the first successful demonstration of a metal vapour laser (MVL) in 1962, this class of laser has become widely used in a broad range of fields including precision materials processing, isotope separation and medicine. The MVLs that are used today have a range of impressive characteristics that are not readily available using other technologies. In particular, the combination of high average output powers, pulse recurrence frequencies and beam quality available from green/yellow Cu vapour lasers (CVLs) and Cu bromide lasers, coupled with the high-quality, multiwatt ultraviolet (265-289 nm) radiation that can be produced using simple nonlinear optical techniques, means that Cu lasers will continue to be important for many years. Metal Vapour Lasers covers all the most commercially important and scientifically interesting pulsed and continuous wave (CW) gas-discharge MVLs, and includes device histories, operating characteristics, engineering, kinetics, commercial exploitation and applications. Short descriptions of gas discharges and excitation techniques make this volume self-consistent. A comprehensive bibliography is also provided. The greater part of this book is devoted to CVLs and their variants, including new sealed-off, high-power 'kinetically enhanced' CVLs and Cu bromide lasers. However, many other self-terminating MVLs are also discussed, including the red AuVL, green/infrared MnVL and infrared BaVL. Pulsed, high-gain, high average power lasers in the UV/violet (373.7, 430.5 nm) spectral regions are represented by Sr¯+ and Ca¯+ discharge-afterglow recombination lasers. The most commercially successful of the MVLs - the CW, UV/blue cataphoretic He-Cd¯+ ion laser - is described. Hollow cathode lasers are represented in two guises: 'white light' (blue/green/red) He-Cd¯+ ion lasers and UV/infrared Ne/He-Cu¯+ ion lasers. This unique volume is an essential reference source for all those working on metal vapour lasers, and all those who use them, from postgraduate students through to experienced scientists and engineers. It will also be extremely useful to all those working in other gas laser technologies, and in gas discharge physics.

Preface

xix

List of Acronyms

xxi

List of Commonly Used Symbols

xxv

Introduction

(22)

Preliminary Considerations

(7)

Main Types of Metal Vapour Lasers

(2)

Metal Seeding

(1)

Buffer Gases

(1)

General Considerations for Laser Tube Construction

(3)

Major Types of Discharge Used for Metal Vapour Lasers

(9)

Positive Column Discharges

(2)

Stationary Positive Column Discharges

(1)

Pulsed Positive Column Discharges

(1)

Pulsed Discharge Afterglows

(1)

Hollow Cathode Discharges

(1)

Transverse RF Discharges

(2)

E-beam Pumped Discharges

(1)

DC Glow-discharge E-beams

(1)

Pulsed Open-discharge E-beams

(2)

Principal Inversion Mechanisms

(3)

Electron Collisions

(1)

Duffendack Charge Transfer and Penning Ionization

(1)

Electron-Ion Recombination

(1)

Early Years of Metal Vapour Laser Development

(3)

Self-terminating Metal Vapour Lasers

(55)

Introduction

(8)

Self-terminating Lasers on Resonance-metastable Transitions

(6)

Maximum Pulse Recurrence Frequency for Inversion

(1)

Excessive Remanent Metastable Density

(1)

Excessive Remanent Electron Density

(1)

Excessive Metal Atom Ground State Depletion

(1)

CW Collision Lasers---Defeating Self-termination

(2)

The Barium Vapour Laser (1.13, 1.50, 2.16, 2.55, 2.92, 4.72 um)

(10)

Introduction

(1)

Laser Details and Operating Parameters

(2)

PRF Limiting Mechanisms

(1)

Inversion Processes

(5)

The Hydrogen Effect

(1)

The Manganese Vapour Laser (534.1 nm; 1.29-1.40 um)

(8)

Introduction

(3)

Conventional Manganese Vapour Lasers

(1)

Manganese Halide and Hybrid Lasers

(1)

Competition between Transitions and Buffer Gas Effects

(1)

Interpulse Kinetics and PRF Limiting Mechanisms

(1)

Coherence and Linewidths

(1)

E-beam-pumped Manganese Lasers

(1)

The Gold Vapour Laser (312.2 nm, 627.8 nm)

(4)

Introduction

(1)

Operating Parameters

(1)

Low Temperature Gold Lasers

(1)

Kinetics

(1)

The Hydrogen Effect

(1)

The Lead Vapour Laser (722.9 nm)

(4)

Introduction

(1)

Conventional Lead Vapour Lasers

(1)

Lead Halide and Hybrid Lasers

(1)

Interpulse Kinetics and PRF Limitations

(2)

E-beam-pumped Lead Vapour Lasers

(1)

The Bismuth Vapour Laser (472.2 nm)

(3)

Introduction

(1)

Operating Characteristics

(1)

Kinetics

(1)

Other Self-terminating Lasers on Neutral Transitions

(7)

The Calcium Vapour Laser (5.547 um)

(1)

The Strontium Vapour Laser (1.976-6.456 um)

(1)

The Iron Vapour Laser (452.9 nm)

(1)

The Europium Vapour Laser (1.760 um)

(2)

The Samarium Vapour Laser (1.912-4.866 um)

(1)

The Thallium Vapour Laser (535.0 nm)

(1)

The Tin Vapour Laser (657.9 nm)

(1)

The Thulium Vapour Laser (1.959 um)

(1)

The Ytterbium Vapour Laser (1.984 um)

(1)

The Calcium Vapour Ion Laser (854.2, 866.2 nm)

(2)

The Strontium Vapour Ion Laser (1.033, 1.092 um)

(1)

The Europium Vapour Ion Laser (1.002 um)

(3)

Introduction

(1)

Operating Parameters

(1)

Upper Level Excitation

(1)

Lower Level Deactivation and Collision Oscillation

(1)

Some other Self-terminating Ion Lasers

(1)

The Mercury Vapour Ion Laser (398.4 nm)

(1)

The Barium Vapour Ion Laser (614.2, 649.7 nm)

(1)

The Ytterbium Vapour Ion Laser (1.269-2.438 um)

(1)

Possible New Resonance-metastable Ion Lasers

(2)

Cooper Vapour Lasers

(67)

Introduction

(1)

Development of Longitudinally Excited CVLs

(11)

Early Years

(2)

Breakthroughs in Technology

(2)

Advances and Controversy in Kinetics Studies

(1)

High PRFs, High Average Output Powers and High Efficiencies

(1)

Technological Advances

(1)

Numerical Modelling Matures

(1)

The Hydrogen Effect

(1)

Ground State Depletion Enters Kinetics Arguments

(1)

CVL Technology in the 1990s

(1)

Kinetically Enhanced CVLs

(1)

Commercial Exploitation of CVLs

(2)

Operating Characteristics of Self-heated Longitudinally Excited CVLs

(6)

Introduction

(2)

Average Input Power and Tube Temperature

(1)

Pulse Recurrence Frequency

(1)

Tube Voltage and Current

(2)

Buffer Gas

(1)

Gain

(1)

Operating Parameters of Transversely Excited CVLs

(2)

Kinetics of Copper Vapour Lasers

(32)

General

(1)

Laser Level Kinetics

(1)

Upper Laser Levels

(1)

Lower Laser Levels

(3)

Radial Profiles of Laser Levels

102

(1)

Some Observations on Performance Trends

103

(2)

Efficiency of Excitation

105

(1)

Ground State Copper Density

106

(3)

Electron Density and Temperature

109

(2)

Phantom Current

111

(1)

Gas Temperature

112

(1)

Kinetics Determining the Maximum PRFs of CVLs

113

(1)

Experiments to Determine the PRF Limiting Mechanism

113

(3)

Taking Ground State Atom Depletion into Account

116

(1)

Remanent Electron Density as a PRF Limiting Factor

117

(1)

Relative Importances of the PRF Limiting Mechanisms

117

(1)

Overcoming PRF Limitations

118

(1)

Numerical Modelling of CVL Kinetics

119

(1)

A Model for Small-bore CVLs

120

(3)

Output Power Limitations of Small-bore CVLs

123

(6)

CVLs with Added Hydrogen

129

(10)

Influence of Hydrogen on Operating Characteristics

129

(7)

Kinetics of the Hydrogen Effect

136

(3)

Hydrogen Halide Additives---`Kinetically Enhanced' (KE) CVLs

139

(4)

Influence of Hydrogen Halides on Operating Characteristics

140

(1)

Kinetics of KE-CVLs

140

(3)

Other Gas Additives

143

(2)

Molecular-donor Copper Lasers

145

(51)

Copper Halide Lasers

145

(1)

Development of Copper Halide Lasers

146

(7)

First Oscillation

146

(1)

Double-pulse (DP) Copper Halide Lasers

146

(1)

Longitudinally Excited DP Lasers

146

(1)

Transversely Excited DP Lasers

147

(1)

Continuously Pulsed Copper Halide Lasers

147

(1)

Development of Practical Devices

147

(2)

The Hydrogen Effect in Copper Halide Lasers

149

(1)

Technology Breakthroughs

150

(1)

Commercial Exploitation

150

(1)

Copper Hybrid Lasers

151

(1)

Early Work

151

(1)

High-performance Copper Hybrid Lasers

151

(2)

Studies of Kinetics in Copper Hybrid Lasers

153

(1)

Double-pulse Excited Copper Halide Lasers

153

(4)

Operating Parameters of DP Copper Halide Lasers

153

(3)

Kinetics of DP Copper Halide Lasers

156

(1)

Characteristics of Continuously Pulsed Copper Halide and Copper Hybrid Lasers

157

(12)

Conventional Copper Halide Lasers

157

(4)

Copper Hybrid Lasers

161

(8)

Kinetics of Continuously Pulsed Copper Halide Lasers

169

(10)

Upper and Lower Laser Levels

169

(4)

Ground State Copper and Copper Bromide Densities

173

(4)

Electron Temperature, Electron Density and the Green: Yellow Intensity Ratio

177

(1)

The Laser Intensity Profile

178

(1)

Kinetics of Copper Halide-Hydrogen and Copper Hybrid Lasers

179

(10)

Particle Densities in Copper Halide Lasers with Hydrogen

179

(1)

Particle Densities in Copper Hybrid Lasers

180

(1)

Previous Explanations of the Hydrogen Effect

180

(2)

A Mechanism for the Hydrogen Effect

182

(3)

Differences between Cu Hybrid and Cu-H2 Halide Lasers

185

(1)

Rates of Cu Metastable Deactivation

186

(1)

PRF Limiting Factors

186

(2)

The Laser Intensity Profile and Hydrogen Addition

188

(1)

Hydrogen-Halogen Chemistry of Copper Halide and Hybrid Lasers

189

(3)

Influence of Hydrogen Reduction on Copper Atom Density

189

(1)

Copper Seeding in Hybrid Lasers

190

(2)

Other Gas Additives in Halide Lasers

192

(2)

Other Copper Donor Lasers

194

(2)

Copper Oxide

194

(1)

Low-temperature Donors: Copper Acetylacetonate, Copper Nitrate and Copper Acetate

195

(1)

Engineering and Electrical Excitation of Pulsed Copper Lasers

196

(47)

Longitudinally Excited (LE) Copper Vapour Lasers

196

(8)

Introduction

196

(1)

General Construction

196

(2)

Electrode Considerations

198

(1)

Sealed-Off Operation

199

(1)

Active Control of Laser Parameters

200

(1)

Supplementary Heating

200

(1)

Impurities in CVL Tubes

201

(1)

Septum Plates for Gas Cooling

201

(2)

Room-temperature LE CVLs

203

(1)

Transversely Excited (TE) Copper Vapour Lasers

204

(3)

Conventional TE CVLs

204

(2)

Fast-flow and Room-temperature TE CVLs

206

(1)

Longitudinally Excited Copper Halide Lasers

207

(10)

General Construction

207

(1)

Control of Metal Seeding

207

(2)

Diaphragms for Discharge Stabilization

209

(2)

High Power Copper Bromide Lasers

211

(1)

Copper Hybrid Lasers

212

(1)

Lifetime Issues for Copper Halide and Hybrid Lasers

213

(1)

Sealed-off Ne-CuBr Lasers

213

(1)

Sealed-off Ne-H2-CuBr Lasers and Cu Hybrid Lasers

214

(2)

Metal Dendrite Growth

216

(1)

Transversely Excited Copper Halide Lasers

217

(1)

Volumetric Scaling of Longitudinally Excited CVLs

218

(2)

Introduction

218

(1)

Issues Related to Scaling by Tube Bore

218

(1)

Length-scaling

219

(1)

Hydrogen Halides and Volumetric Scaling

220

(1)

E-beam Excitation of Copper Lasers

221

(1)

Microwave Excitation of Copper Lasers

222

(1)

Excitation Circuits

223

(6)

Introduction

223

(1)

Capacitor Circuits with Resonant Charging

224

(2)

Charge-transfer Circuits

226

(1)

Other Excitation Circuits

227

(1)

LC Inversion Circuit

227

(1)

Interacting Circuits

228

(1)

Copper Vapour Lasers as Circuit Elements

229

(4)

Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance

229

(3)

The Plasma Skin Effect

232

(1)

Switches

233

(5)

Thyratrons

233

(4)

Other Switches

237

(1)

Non-linear Magnetic Circuit Elements

238

(5)

Introduction

238

(1)

Magnetic Assist

238

(1)

Non-linear Charging Inductor

239

(1)

Magnetic Pulse Compression

239

(3)

Non-linear Magnetic Materials for CVLs

242

(1)

Gain Behaviour, Optical Resonators and Beam Quality of Pulsed Copper Lasers

243

(42)

Introduction

243

(1)

Evolution of Gain and Laser Intensity in CVLs

243

(7)

Evolution of Gain

243

(2)

General Development of Laser Output Intensity

245

(2)

Detailed Evolution of Laser Output Intensity

247

(3)

CVL Optical Resonators and Beam Divergence

250

(21)

Divergence---Some Definitions

250

(1)

Plane-Plane Resonators

250

(1)

Intracavity Spatial Filtering and Single-mirror Feedback

251

(1)

Simple Confocal Unstable Resonators for Low Divergence

252

(3)

Off-axis Confocal Unstable Resonators

255

(1)

Divergence in Unstable Resonators

255

(1)

Diffraction Theory Approach

255

(3)

Geometrical Optics Approach

258

(2)

Measurements of Divergence in CVLs

260

(6)

Reductions in Divergence with H2 and Hydrogen Halide Additives

266

(1)

Self-filtering and Diffraction-filtered Unstable Resonators

267

(3)

Copper Halide and Hybrid Lasers and Unstable Resonators

270

(1)

Thermal Effects in CVL Resonators

270

(1)

Injection-controlled Oscillators

271

(4)

Introduction

271

(1)

Simple Injection-controlled Oscillators

271

(2)

Copper Hybrid Lasers with Simple Injection Control

273

(1)

Adjoint-coupled ICOs

274

(1)

Master-oscillator Power-amplifier systems

275

(3)

Introduction

275

(1)

Amplifier and MOPA Characteristics

276

(2)

Spatial Coherence

278

(2)

Temporal Coherence and Mode Characteristics

280

(2)

Temporal Coherence and Single Longitudinal Mode Operation

280

(1)

Mode Locking and Self Mode-locking

281

(1)

Pulse Shortening by Cavity Control

282

(2)

Line-shapes of CVL Radiation

284

(1)

Frequency Extension of Copper Lasers and Other Resonance-metastable MVLs

285

(36)

Introduction

285

(1)

CVL-pumped Dye Lasers

285

(17)

Introduction and Development

285

(1)

Dye-pumping Configurations

286

(1)

Analysis of CVL-pumped Dye Amplifier Characteristics

287

(3)

Resonator Issues

290

(3)

Operating Characteristics

293

(3)

Short-pulse Amplification

296

(1)

CVL-pumped Dye Lasers for Specific Applications

297

(1)

Green to Yellow Conversion for Dermatology

297

(1)

Red Dye lasers for Cancer Photodynamic Therapy

298

(1)

High-power Dye Lasers for AVLIS and Astronomy

299

(3)

CVL-pumped Titanium: Sapphire Lasers

302

(8)

Introduction and Development

302

(2)

General Considerations

304

(1)

Pump/Resonator Configurations

305

(1)

Operating Characteristics

306

(4)

Other CVL-pumped Tunable Lasers

310

(1)

Non-linear Optical Generation

311

(9)

Introduction and Development

311

(2)

Materials

313

(1)

Focusing Geometries

314

(1)

Spherical `Spot' Focusing

314

(1)

Line Focusing

314

(2)

CVL Systems for Non-linear Optical Generation

316

(1)

Non-linear Generation at PRFs + 10 kHz

316

(2)

Other Non-linear Optical Generation Schemes

318

(2)

Mixed-metal Vapour Lasers

320

(1)

Applications of Copper Lasers and other Resonance-metastable Metal Vapour Lasers

321

(53)

Introduction

321

(1)

Precision Materials Processing

321

(16)

Introduction

321

(1)

The CVL as a Machine Tool

322

(2)

Drilling and Cutting with CVLs

324

(1)

General Considerations with Specific Reference to Metal Processing

324

(9)

Ceramics Processing

333

(1)

Processing Transparent Materials

334

(1)

Underwater Processing with CVLs

334

(2)

Pulsed Laser Deposition

336

(1)

Laser-induced Microchemistry

336

(1)

Materials Processing with Ultraviolet Radiation

337

(3)

UV Micromachining with Frequency-doubled CVLs

337

(2)

UV Photolithography

339

(1)

Medicine

340

(5)

Introduction

340

(1)

Photodynamic Therapy of Cancer (CVL-pumped Dye and Gold Vapour Lasers)

340

(2)

Laser Coagulation for Dermatology

342

(1)

Other Medical Treatments

343

(2)

AVLIS

345

(3)

Introduction

345

(1)

Development of CVL AVLIS Facilities

346

(2)

Laser Beacons for Astronomy

348

(5)

Introduction

348

(1)

Adaptive Optics for Laser Beacons

348

(2)

CVL Rayleigh Beacons

350

(1)

Sodium Beacons using CVL-pumped Dye Lasers

351

(2)

Active Optical Systems

353

(11)

Introduction

353

(1)

Image Brightness Amplifiers

354

(1)

General

354

(1)

Saturation and Contrast

355

(1)

Laser Projection Microscopes

356

(2)

Transmission Laser Projection Microscopes

358

(1)

Negative-image Laser Projection Microscopes

358

(2)

Dark-field Laser Projection Microscopes

360

(1)

Active Optical Systems for Materials Processing

360

(3)

Other Applications of MVL Active Optical Systems

363

(1)

Projection Television and Simulators

364

(2)

Introduction

364

(1)

Laser Projection Displays with Line by Line Scanning

364

(1)

Projection Displays using Active Optical Systems

365

(1)

Spectroscopy

366

(1)

Mass Spectrometry

367

(1)

Lidar

368

(2)

High-speed Photography

370

(1)

Navigation

370

(1)

Forensics

371

(1)

Holography

372

(2)

Strontium and Calcium Ion Recombination Lasers

374

(42)

Introduction

374

(1)

Development

374

(4)

Early Technology

374

(1)

Kinetics Studies

375

(1)

Frequency Extension

376

(1)

Thermal Management and Power Scaling

376

(1)

Further Advances in Technology

377

(1)

Commercial Exploitation

377

(1)

Engineering of Longitudinal Discharge Sr+ and Ca+ RLs

378

(8)

General Construction

378

(3)

Intensified Heat Removal for Power Scaling

381

(3)

Slab Discharge Geometries for Power Scaling

384

(1)

Electrical Excitation

385

(1)

Operating Characteristics

386

(5)

General

386

(1)

Buffer Gas

386

(2)

Laser Tubes with Active Cooling

388

(1)

Rectangular-bore Lasers

388

(2)

Divergence, Gain and Resonator Phenomena

390

(1)

Long-pulse Oscillation

391

(1)

Alternative Means of Pumping Sr+ and Ca+ RLs

391

(3)

Transverse Discharge Excitation

391

(2)

E-beam/Ion-beam Excitation and Hollow Cathode Discharge Pumping

393

(1)

Microwave Excitation

394

(1)

Kinetics

394

(10)

Excitation Mechanism

394

(3)

Neutral and Ion Strontium Densities

397

(1)

Electron Density and Temperature

398

(3)

Radial Profiles of Laser Intensity

401

(1)

PRF and Input Power Limiting Mechanisms

402

(1)

Production of Inversion by Heavy-body Processes

402

(2)

Numerical Modelling

404

(4)

Frequency Extension

408

(3)

Tunable Lasers Pumped by Sr+ and Ca+ RLs

408

(3)

Mixed-metal Sr+ and Ca+ RLs

411

(1)

Applications

411

(4)

Active Optical Systems

411

(1)

Miscellaneous

412

(3)

Scaling to Shorter Wavelengths

415

(1)

Cataphoretic Helium-Cadmium Ion Lasers

416

(40)

Introduction

416

(1)

Development

416

(5)

The Discovery of Violet and UV Oscillation in Cadmium

416

(1)

Cataphoresis for Metal Seeding

417

(1)

Variants and Advances

417

(1)

Evidence for More than One Excitation Mechanism

418

(1)

Support for Penning Ionization

418

(1)

Electron Impact versus Penning Ionization

419

(1)

Recent Developments

420

(1)

Commercial Cataphoretic He-Cd+ Lasers

420

(1)

Laser Engineering

421

(6)

Discharge Tubes

421

(3)

Alternate Tube Designs

424

(1)

Discharge Tubes with Metal Vapour Circulation and Vented Bores

424

(2)

Segmented-bore and Self-heated Tubes

426

(1)

Multiple Wavelength Generation

427

(1)

Cataphoretic Seeding and Confinement

427

(2)

Metal Seeding

427

(1)

Confinement

428

(1)

Operating Characteristics of CW He-Cd+ Lasers

429

(4)

General Behaviour

429

(1)

Gain, Linewidth and Mode Locking

429

(3)

Scaling Laws

432

(1)

Gas Additives

432

(1)

Kinetics of CW He-Cd+ Lasers

433

(19)

Introduction

433

(3)

Cadmium Ground State Density

436

(1)

Ion Kinetics

437

(2)

Metastable Densities

439

(1)

Electron Temperature and Density

440

(1)

Laser Level Kinetics---Penning Ionization

441

(5)

Laser Level Kinetics---Stepwise Electron-impact Excitation

446

(5)

Which Excitation Mechanism?

451

(1)

Radiation Noise and Discharge Striations

452

(2)

Applications of Cataphoretic He-Cd+ Lasers

454

(2)

White-light Helium-Cadmium Ion Lasers

456

(41)

Introduction

456

(1)

Development

457

(7)

Early Years

457

(1)

The First Studies of Inversion Mechanisms

458

(1)

White-light He-Cd+ Lasers

459

(1)

Other Developments in CW Hollow Cathode Laser Technology

460

(1)

Doubts About Penning Excitation

461

(1)

Duffendack Excitation of the Green and Red Lines Revisited

462

(1)

Advances in White-light Lasers

463

(1)

Commercial White-light Lasers

463

(1)

General Laser Engineering

464

(1)

Low-voltage Longitudinal Hollow Cathode He-Cd+ Lasers

465

(7)

Tandem-Segmented (TS) Electrode Lasers

465

(3)

Flute Lasers

468

(1)

Perforated Concentric-cylinder (PCC) Lasers

469

(3)

Twin Cathode (TC) Lasers

472

(1)

Low-voltage Transverse Hollow Cathode He-Cd+ Lasers

472

(1)

Slotted Cathode Lasers

472

(1)

High-voltage Hollow Cathode He-Cd+ Lasers

473

(3)

Hollow Anode-Cathode Lasers

474

(1)

Triode Lasers

474

(1)

Helical Cathode Lasers

474

(2)

Operating Characteristics of White-light He-Cd+ Lasers

476

(5)

General Characteristics

476

(5)

Gas Additives and Molecular Donors

481

(1)

Kinetics of White-light He-Cd+ Lasers

481

(7)

The 325.0 nm and 441.6 nm lines

481

(1)

Mechanisms

481

(2)

Experimental Evidence

483

(2)

Numerical Modelling

485

(1)

The Duffendack/Cascade Excited Lines

485

(1)

The 635.5, 636.0, 723.8, 728.4, 865.2 and 887.8 nm Lines

485

(1)

The 533.7 and 537.8 nm Lines

486

(1)

The 806.7 and 853.0 nm Lines

487

(1)

Electron Superelastic Collisions and Oscillation in Pulsed Afterglows

487

(1)

Transverse RF Excited He-Cd+ Lasers

488

(4)

Practical Considerations

489

(1)

Operating Characteristics

490

(2)

High Pressure, Pulsed E-beam Pumped He-Cd+ Lasers

492

(3)

Applications of White-light He-Cd+ Lasers

495

(2)

Ultraviolet and Infrared Copper, Silver and Gold Ion Lasers

497

(42)

Introduction

497

(1)

Development of CW Hollow Cathode He-Cu+ and Ne-Cu+ Lasers

497

(8)

A Host of Infrared and Visible Laser Transitions

497

(4)

Ultraviolet Laser Transitions

501

(1)

Improved Performance of Slotted Hollow Cathode Lasers

501

(1)

Tandem Segmented, Coaxial-electrode Hollow Cathode Lasers

502

(1)

Sputtering and Kinetics

502

(1)

Alternative Hollow Cathode Laser Technologies

503

(1)

Transversely and Radially Segmented Hollow Cathode Lasers

504

(1)

General Laser Engineering

505

(1)

Low-voltage Transverse Hollow Cathode He-Cu+ and Ne-Cu+ Lasers

505

(3)

Rectangular-slotted and Cylindrical-slotted Hollow Cathode Lasers

505

(3)

Low-voltage Longitudinal Hollow Cathode He-Cu+ and Ne-Cu+ Lasers

508

(2)

Flute Hollow Cathode Lasers

508

(1)

Tandem-segmented, Coaxial Electrode Hollow Cathode Lasers

508

(2)

High-voltage Hollow Cathode He-Cu+ and Ne-Cu+ Lasers

510

(8)

Introduction

510

(1)

Hollow Anode-Cathode Lasers

510

(1)

Helical Cathode Lasers

511

(1)

Transversely and Radially Segmented Hollow Cathode Lasers

512

(6)

Operating Characteristics of CW Hollow Cathode Cu+ Lasers

518

(8)

UV Transitions

518

(1)

Slotted Hollow Cathode Lasers

518

(4)

Segmented Hollow Cathode Lasers

522

(1)

IR Transitions

523

(1)

Slotted Hollow Cathode Lasers

523

(1)

Segmented Hollow Cathode Lasers

524

(2)

Kinetics of CW Cu+ lasers

526

(6)

Inversion Mechanisms

526

(2)

Sputtering, Particle Densities and Kinetic Processes

528

(1)

Low-voltage Hollow Cathode Lasers

528

(2)

Segmented Hollow Cathode Lasers

530

(1)

Lower Laser Level Effects in the UV Transitions

531

(1)

VUV Cu+ Ion Transitions

532

(1)

Transverse RF Excited Cu+ Lasers

532

(2)

CW Hollow Cathode He-Au+ Lasers

534

(2)

CW Hollow Cathode He-Ag+ and Ne-Ag+ Lasers

536

(2)

Applications of Cu+, Ag+ and Au+ Lasers

538

(1)

Bibliography

539

(67)

General

539

(4)

Lasers

539

(1)

Metal Vapour Ion Lasers

539

(1)

Specific Types of Lasers (not listed elsewhere)

540

(1)

Glow-discharge Kinetics

541

(1)

E-beam Pumping

542

(1)

Spectroscopy, Materials and Chemistry

542

(1)

Self-terminating Lasers

543

(9)

General

543

(1)

Barium Vapour Lasers

544

(2)

Manganese Vapour Lasers

546

(1)

Gold Vapour Lasers

546

(1)

Lead Vapour Lasers

547

(1)

Bismuth Vapour Lasers

548

(1)

Calcium and Strontium Vapour Lasers

549

(1)

Iron Vapour Lasers

549

(1)

Europium Vapour Lasers

549

(1)

Thallium Vapour Lasers

549

(1)

Tin Vapour Lasers

550

(1)

Thulium Vapour Lasers

550

(1)

Ytterbium Atom and Ion Lasers

550

(1)

Calcium and Strontium Ion Lasers

550

(1)

Europium Ion Lasers

550

(1)

Mercury Ion Lasers

551

(1)

Barium Ion Lasers

551

(1)

Copper Vapour Lasers

552

(20)

Copper Halide and other Molecular-donor Copper Lasers

572

(7)

Applications of CVLs and other Resonance-metastable Lasers

579

(9)

Sr+ and Ca+ Recombination Lasers

588

(4)

Cataphoretic He-Cd+ Lasers

592

(5)

Hollow Cathode, TRF and E-beam-pumped He-Cd+ Lasers

597

(5)

Hollow Cathode and TRF Cu+, Ag+ and Au+ Lasers

602

(4)

Cu+ Ion Lasers

602

(3)

Ag+ Ion Lasers

605

(1)

Au+ Ion Lasers

605

(1)

Index

606

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Metal Vapour Lasers Physics, Engineering and Applications

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials