Meteorology Today An Introduction to Weather, Climate, and the Environment (with InfoTrac)

, by Ahrens, C. Donald

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ISBN: 9780534372019 | 0534372015
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 8/26/1999

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Supplemental Materials

The Earth And Its Atmosphere

(23)

Overview of the Earth's Atmosphere

(6)

Composition of the Atmosphere

(3)

Focus On A Special Topic A Breath of Fresh Air

(2)

The Early Atmosphere

(1)

Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere

(7)

A Brief Look at Air Pressure and Air Density

(0)

Layers of the Atmosphere

(2)

Focus On A Special Topic The Atmospheres of Other Planets

(3)

Focus On An Observation The Radiosonde

(1)

The lonosphere

(1)

Weather and Climate

(7)

Meteorology-A Brief History

(0)

A Satellite's View of the Weather

(0)

Storms of All Sizes

(1)

A Look at a Weather Map

(1)

Weather and Climate in Our Lives

(4)

Summary

(0)

Key Terms

(0)

Questions for Review

(1)

Questions for Thought

(0)

Problems and Exercises

(0)

Questions for Exploration

(1)

Energy: Warming The Earth And The Atmosphere

(28)

Energy, Temperature, and Heat

(4)

Temperature Scales

(1)

Specific Heat

(0)

Latent Heat-The Hidden Warmth

(2)

Focus On A Special Topic The Fate of a Sunbeam

(0)

Heat Transfer in the Atmosphere

(3)

Conduction

(1)

Convection

(1)

Focus On A Special Topic Rising Air Cools and Sinking Air Warms

(1)

01>Radiation

(3)

Radiation and Temperature

(0)

Radiation of the Sun and Earth

(2)

Focus On A Special Topic Wave Energy, Sun Burning, and UV Rays

(0)

Balancing Act-Absorption, Emission, and Equilibrium

(5)

Selective Absorbers and the Atmospheric Greenhouse Effect

(2)

Enhancement of the Greenhouse Effect

(2)

Warming the Air from Below

(0)

Incoming Solar Energy

(8)

Focus On An Advanced Topic Radiative Equilibrium and Forcing- The Ins and Outs

(1)

Scattered and Reflected Light

(1)

The Earth's Annual Energy Balance

(1)

Solar Particles and the Aurora

(1)

Focus On A Special Topic Characteristics of the Sun

(3)

Summary

(0)

Key Terms

(0)

Questions for Review

(1)

Questions for Thought

(0)

Problems and Exercises

(1)

Questions for Exploration

(1)

Seasonal And Daily Temperatures

(28)

Why the Earth Has Seasons

(7)

Seasons in the Northern Hemisphere

(2)

Focus On A Special Topic Is December 21 Really the First Day of Winter?

(2)

Focus On An Observation Does the First Frost Cause the Leaves to Change Color in Autumn?

(1)

Seasons in the Southern Hemisphere

(1)

Focus On A Special Topic The Tilted Earth and Its Energy Balance

(1)

Focus On A Special Topic The Changing Seasons and How We Feel- It Could Be SAD

(0)

Local Seasonal Variations

(2)

Focus On A Special Topic Solar Heating and the Noonday Sun

(0)

Daily Temperature Variations

(5)

Daytime Warming

(2)

Nighttime Cooling

(0)

Radiation Inversions

(2)

Protecting Crops from the Cold

(1)

The Controls of Temperature

(2)

Air Temperature Data

(2)

Daily, Monthly, and Yearly Temperatures

(1)

The Use of Temperature Data

(1)

Air Temperature and Human Comfort

(3)

Focus On An Observation A Thousand Degrees and Freezing to Death

(0)

Measuring Air Temperature

(3)

Focus On A Special Topic Thermometers Should Be Read in the Shade

(1)

Summary

(0)

Key Terms

(0)

Questions for Review

(1)

Questions for Thought

(0)

Problems and Exercises

(0)

Questions for Exploration

(1)

Light, Color, And Atmospheric Optics

(24)

White and Colors

(0)

White Clouds and Scattered Light

(1)

Blue Skies and Hazy Days

(1)

Red Suns and Blue Moons

(3)

Twinkling, Twilight, and the Green Flash

(3)

The Mirage: Seeing Is Not Believing

(1)

Halos, Sundogs, and Sun Pillars

(4)

Focus On An Observation The Fata Morgana

(3)

Rainbow

(3)

Focus On An Observation Can It Be a Rainbow If It Is Not Raining?

(0)

Coronas, Glories, and Heiligenschein

(3)

Summary

101

(0)

Key Terms

101

(0)

Questions for Review

101

(1)

Questions for Thought

102

(0)

Problems and Exercises

102

(1)

Questions for Exploration

103

(1)

Atmospheric Moisture

104

(20)

Water in the Atmosphere

106

(3)

The Many Phases of Water

106

(2)

Circulation of Water in the Atmosphere

108

(1)

Absolute Humidity

109

(0)

Specific Humidity and Mixing Ratio

109

(1)

Vapor Pressure

110

(2)

Relative Humidity

112

(2)

Focus On A Special Topic Vapor Pressure and Boiling-The Higher You Go, the Longer Cooking Takes

113

(1)

Relative Humidity and Dew Point

114

(2)

Comparing Humidities

116

(2)

Focus On A Special Topic Computing Relative Humidity and Dew Point

117

(1)

Relative Humidity in the Home

118

(0)

Relative Humidity and Human Discomfort

118

(1)

Measuring Humidity

119

(3)

Focus On A Special Topic Is Humid Air or Dry Air More Dense?

120

(2)

Summary

122

(0)

Key Terms

122

(0)

Questions for Review

122

(1)

Questions for Thought

123

(0)

Problems and Exercises

123

(0)

Questions for Exploration

123

(1)

Condensation: Dew, Fog, And Clouds

124

(34)

The Formation of Dew and Frost

126

(1)

Condensation Nuclei

127

(0)

Haze

127

(1)

Fog

128

(7)

Radiation Fog

129

(2)

Advection Fog

131

(0)

Focus On An Observation Why Are Headlands Usually Foggier than Beaches?

131

(1)

Upslope Fog

132

(1)

Evaporation (Mixing) Fog

133

(1)

Focus On A Special Topic Fog that Forms by Mixing

134

(1)

Foggy Weather

135

(1)

Clouds

136

(20)

Focus On A Special Topic Fog Dispersal

137

(1)

Classification of Clouds

138

(0)

Cloud Identification

138

(0)

High Clouds

138

(1)

Middle Clouds

139

(1)

Low Clouds

140

(2)

Clouds with Vertical Development

142

(2)

Some Unusual Clouds

144

(5)

Cloud Observations

149

(0)

Determining Sky Conditions

149

(1)

Focus On Instruments Measuring Cloud Ceilings

150

(1)

Satellite Observations

151

(3)

Focus On A Special Topic Satellites Do More than Observe Clouds

154

(2)

Summary

156

(0)

Key Terms

156

(0)

Questions for Review

156

(1)

Questions for Thought

157

(0)

Problems and Exercises

157

(0)

Questions for Exploration

157

(1)

Stability And Cloud Development

158

(22)

Atmospheric Stability

160

(1)

Determining Stability

161

(6)

Stable Air

161

(1)

A Stable Atmosphere

162

(1)

Unstable Air

163

(2)

Causes of Instability

165

(2)

Cloud Development

167

(11)

Convection and Clouds

167

(4)

Topography and Clouds

171

(1)

Focus On An Observation Determining Convective Cloud Bases

172

(1)

Widespread Ascent and Clouds

173

(1)

Focus On An Advanced Topic Adiabatic Charts

174

(2)

Changing Cloud Forms

176

(0)

Mixing and Stratocumulus

176

(2)

Summary

178

(0)

Key Terms

178

(0)

Questions for Review

178

(0)

Questions for Thought

178

(1)

Problems and Exercises

179

(0)

Questions for Exploration

179

(1)

Precipitation

180

(28)

Precipitation Processes

182

(9)

How Do Cloud Droplets Grow Larger?

182

(2)

Collision and Coalescence Process

184

(1)

Ice-Crystal Process

185

(3)

Cloud Seeding

188

(2)

Focus On A Special Topic Does Cloud Seeding Enhance Precipitation?

190

(0)

Precipitation in Clouds

190

(1)

Precipitation Types

191

(11)

Rain

191

(1)

Snow

192

(1)

Focus On A Special Topic Are Raindrops Tear-Shaped?

193

(0)

Snowflakes and Snowfall

193

(1)

Focus On A Special Topic When Is It Too Warm to Snow?

194

(2)

A Blanket of Snow

196

(1)

Focus On A Special Topic Sounds of Silence

197

(0)

Sleet and Freezing Rain

197

(2)

Focus On An Application Aircraft Icing

199

(0)

Snow Grains and Snow Pellets

199

(1)

Hail

200

(2)

Measuring Precipitation

202

(3)

Instruments

202

(1)

Weather Radar and Precipitation

203

(2)

Summary

205

(0)

Key Terms

205

(0)

Questions for Review

205

(1)

Questions for Thought

206

(0)

Problems and Exercises

206

(1)

Questions for Exploration

207

(1)

The Atmosphere In Motion: Air Pressure, Forces, And Winds

208

(30)

Atmospheric Pressure

210

(6)

Focus On A Special Topic The Atmosphere Obeys the Gas Law

212

(0)

Pressure Measurements

212

(3)

Pressure Readings

215

(1)

Surface and Upper-Level Charts

216

(5)

Focus On An Observation Flying on a Constant Pressure Surface- High to Low, Look Out Below

220

(1)

Newton's Laws of Motion

221

(0)

Forces that Influence the Winds

221

(12)

Pressure Gradient Force

222

(0)

Coriolis Force

222

(3)

Straight-Line Winds Aloft-Geostrophic Winds

225

(1)

Focus On An Advanced Topic A Mathematical Look at the Geostrophic Wind

226

(1)

Curved Winds Around Lows and Highs Aloft-Gradient Winds

227

(1)

Focus On An Observation Estimating Wind Direction and Pressure Patterns Aloft

228

(1)

Winds On Upper-Level Charts

229

(2)

Focus On A Special Topic Winds Aloft in the Southern Hemisphere

231

(0)

Surface Winds

231

(2)

Winds and Vertical Air Motions

233

(2)

Focus On An Advanced Topic The Hydrostatic Equation

234

(1)

Summary

235

(0)

Key Terms

235

(0)

Questions for Review

235

(1)

Questions for Thought

236

(0)

Problems and Exercises

236

(1)

Questions for Exploration

237

(1)

Wind: Small-Scale And Local Systems

238

(34)

Small-Scale Winds Interacting with the Environment

240

(10)

Scales of Motion

240

(0)

Friction and Turbulence in the Boundary Layer

240

(3)

Eddies-Big and Small

243

(1)

The Force of the Wind

244

(1)

Focus On An Observation Eddies and "Air Pockets"

245

(1)

Microscale Winds Blowing over the Earth's Surface

246

(0)

Wind and Exposed Soil

246

(0)

Wind and Snow Surfaces

246

(1)

Wind and Vegetation

247

(1)

Wind and Waves

248

(1)

Focus On A Special Topic Pedaling into the Wind

249

(1)

Determining Wind Direction and Speed

250

(3)

The Influence of Prevailing Winds

250

(1)

Wind Instruments

251

(2)

Local Wind Systems

253

(15)

Thermal Circulations

253

(1)

Focus On A Special Topic Wind Power

254

(1)

Sea and Land Breezes

255

(2)

Focus On A Special Topic Florida's Fires and the Sea Breeze

257

(1)

Local Winds and Water

258

(1)

Seasonally Changing Winds-The Monsoon

259

(1)

Mountain and Valley Breezes

260

(1)

Katabatic Winds

261

(1)

Chinook (Foehn) Winds

262

(1)

Focus On A Special Topic Snow Eaters and Rapid Temperature Changes

263

(0)

Santa Ana Winds

263

(2)

Desert Winds

265

(1)

Other Local Winds of Interest

266

(2)

Summary

268

(1)

Key Terms

269

(0)

Questions for Review

269

(1)

Questions for Thought

270

(0)

Problems and Exercises

270

(2)

Wind: Global Systems

272

(28)

General Circulation of the Atmosphere

274

(7)

Single-Cell Model

274

(0)

Three-Cell Model

274

(3)

Focus On A Special Topic Dynamic General Circulation Models

277

(0)

Average Surface Winds and Pressure: The Real World

277

(2)

The General Circulation and Precipitation Patterns

279

(2)

Average Wind Flow and Pressure Patterns Aloft

281

(0)

Jet Streams

281

(7)

Focus On An Observation The "Dishpan" Experiment

284

(1)

The Formation of the Polar Front Jet and the Subtropical Jet

285

(1)

Other Jet Streams

286

(1)

Focus On An Advanced Topic Momentum-A Case of Give and Take

287

(1)

Atmosphere-Ocean Interactions

288

(4)

Global Wind Patterns and Surface Ocean Currents

288

(3)

Upwelling

291

(1)

Global Wind Patterns and Surface Ocean Temperatures

292

(0)

El Nino and the Southern Oscillation

292

(5)

Summary

297

(0)

Key Terms

297

(1)

Questions for Review

298

(0)

Questions for Thought

298

(0)

Problems and Exercises

298

(1)

Questions for Exploration

299

(1)

Air Masses And Fronts

300

(25)

Air Masses

302

(11)

Source Regions

302

(0)

Classification

302

(1)

Air Masses of North America

303

(0)

cP (Continental Polar) and cA (Continental Arctic) Air Masses

303

(1)

Focus On A Special Topic Lake Effect Snows

304

(2)

mP (Maritime Polar) Air Masses

306

(1)

Focus On A Special Topic The Return of the Siberian Express

307

(2)

mT (Maritime Tropical) Air Masses

309

(2)

cT (Continental Tropical) Air Masses

311

(2)

Fronts

313

(8)

Stationary Fronts

313

(0)

Cold Fronts

313

(5)

Warm Fronts

318

(2)

Occluded Fronts

320

(1)

Summary

321

(1)

Key Terms

322

(0)

Questions for Review

322

(0)

Questions for Thought

322

(1)

Problems and Exercises

323

(0)

Questions for Exploration

323

(2)

Middle Latitude Cyclones

325

(25)

Polar Front Theory

326

(2)

Where Do Mid-Latitude Storms Tend to Form?

328

(1)

Vertical Structure of Deep-Pressure Systems

329

(2)

Focus On A Special Topic A Closer Look at Convergence and Divergence

330

(1)

Upper-Level Waves and Surface Storms

331

(1)

The Necessary Ingredients for a Developing Wave Cyclone

332

(8)

Upper-Air Support

332

(1)

The Role of the Jet Stream

333

(1)

Focus On A Special Topic Jet Streaks and Storms

334

(1)

The Conveyor Belt Model of Rising and Descending Air

335

(2)

A Developing Wave-Cyclone---The March Storm of 1993

337

(3)

Vorticity, Divergence, and Developing Storm Systems

340

(6)

Focus On A Special Topic Vorticity and Longwaves

342

(3)

Focus On A Special Topic The Development of Lee-Side Lows

345

(1)

Polar Lows

346

(1)

Summary

347

(0)

Key Terms

347

(0)

Questions for Review

347

(1)

Questions for Thought

348

(0)

Problems and Exercises

348

(1)

Questions for Exploration

349

(1)

Weather Forecasting

350

(30)

Acquisition of Weather Information

352

(1)

Weather Forecasting Methods

353

(10)

The Computer and Weather Forecasting: Numerical Weather Prediction

353

(1)

Focus On A Special Topic Watches, Warnings, and Advisories

354

(0)

Forecasting Tools

354

(4)

Why Forecasts Go Awry

358

(0)

Other Forecasting Methods

358

(4)

Accuracy and Skill in Forecasting

362

(1)

Predicting the Weather from Local Signs

363

(2)

Weather Forecasting Using Surface Charts

365

(7)

Determining the Movement of Weather Systems

365

(1)

Focus On An Observation Forecasting Temperature Advection by Watching the Clouds

366

(2)

A Forecast for Six Cities

368

(0)

Weather Forecast for Augusta, Georgia

368

(1)

Rain or Snow for Washington, D.C.?

369

(1)

Big Snowstorm for Chicago

370

(0)

Mixed Bag of Weather for Memphis

370

(1)

Cold Wave for Dallas

371

(0)

Clear but Cold for Denver

371

(1)

A Meterologist Makes a Prediction

372

(6)

Help from the 500-mb Chart

372

(1)

The Computer Provides Assistance

373

(2)

A Valid Forecast

375

(0)

Assistance from the Satellite

375

(1)

A Day of Rain and Wind

376

(2)

Summary

378

(0)

Key Terms

378

(0)

Questions for Review

378

(1)

Questions for Thought

379

(0)

Problems and Exercises

379

(0)

Questions for Exploration

379

(1)

Thunderstorms And Tornadoes

380

(38)

What Are Thunderstorms?

382

(0)

Ordinary (Air-Mass) Thunderstorms

382

(2)

Severe Thunderstorms

384

(11)

The Gust Front and Microburst

386

(2)

Supercell and Squall-Line Thunderstorms

388

(2)

The Dryline

390

(1)

Floods and Flash Floods

391

(1)

Focus On A Special Topic The Terrifying Flash Flood in the Big Thompson Canyon

392

(1)

Mesoscale Convective Complexes

393

(1)

Thunderstorm Movement

394

(1)

Distribution of Thunderstorms

395

(1)

Lightning and Thunder

396

(5)

Electrification of Clouds

396

(1)

The Lightning Stroke

397

(0)

Focus On A Special Topic Red Sprites and Blue Jets

397

(4)

Lightning Detection and Suppression

401

(2)

Focus On An Observation Don't Sit Under the Apple Tree

402

(1)

Tornadoes

403

(8)

Tornado Occurrence

403

(2)

Tornado Winds

405

(2)

Tornado Formation

407

(2)

Observing Tornadoes

409

(1)

Focus On An Observation Thunderstorm Rotation

410

(1)

Severe Weather and Doppler Radar

411

(3)

Waterspouts

414

(1)

Summary

415

(0)

Key Terms

415

(0)

Questions for Review

415

(1)

Questions for Thought

416

(0)

Problems and Exercises

416

(1)

Questions for Exploration

417

(1)

Hurricanes

418

(22)

Tropical Weather

420

(0)

Anatomy of a Hurricane

420

(3)

Hurricane Formation and Dissipation

423

(13)

Hurricane Stages of Development

425

(1)

Hurricane Movement

426

(1)

Focus On A Special Topic How Do Hurricanes Compare with Middle Latitude Storms?

427

(2)

Destruction and Warning

429

(2)

Focus On A Special Topic Modifying Hurricanes

431

(5)

Naming Hurricanes

436

(2)

Summary

438

(0)

Key Terms

438

(0)

Questions for Review

438

(1)

Questions for Thought

439

(0)

Problems and Exercises

439

(0)

Questions for Exploration

439

(1)

Air Pollution

440

(30)

A Brief History of Air Pollution

442

(1)

Types and Sources of Air Pollutants

443

(12)

Principal Air Pollutants

443

(4)

Ozone in the Troposphere

447

(1)

Ozone in the Stratosphere

448

(1)

Stratospheric Ozone: Production-Destruction

449

(0)

Stratospheric Ozone---Upsetting the Balance

449

(1)

Air Pollution: Trends and Patterns

450

(1)

Focus On A Special Topic The Ozone Hole

451

(4)

Factors that Affect Air Pollution

455

(6)

The Role of the Wind

455

(0)

The Role of Stability and Inversions

455

(1)

Focus On A Special Topic Indoor Air Pollution

456

(2)

The Role of Topography

458

(1)

Focus On An Observation Smoke Stack Plumes

459

(2)

Severe Air Pollution Potential

461

(0)

Air Pollution and the Urban Environment

461

(2)

Focus On An Observation Five Days in Donora---An Air Pollution Episode

462

(1)

Acid Deposition

463

(4)

Summary

467

(0)

Key Terms

467

(0)

Questions for Review

467

(1)

Questions for Thought

468

(0)

Problems and Exercises

468

(1)

Questions for Exploration

469

(1)

Global Climate

470

(34)

A World with Many Climates

472

(7)

Global Temperatures

472

(1)

The Hottest and Coldest Places on Earth

473

(1)

Global Precipitation

474

(5)

Climatic Classification

479

(3)

The Ancient Greeks

479

(1)

Focus On A Special Topic Precipitation Extremes

480

(0)

The Koppen System

480

(2)

Thornthwaite's System

482

(0)

The Global Pattern of Climate

482

(20)

Tropical Moist Climates (Group A)

482

(6)

Dry Climates (Group B)

488

(3)

Moist Subtropical Mid-latitude Climates (Group C)

491

(1)

Focus On A Special Topic A Desert with Clouds and Drizzle

492

(3)

Moist Continental Climates (Group D)

495

(4)

Polar Climates (Group E)

499

(2)

Highland Climates (Group H)

501

(1)

Summary

502

(0)

Key Terms

502

(0)

Questions for Review

502

(0)

Questions for Thought

502

(1)

Problems and Exercises

503

(1)

Climate Change

504

(2)

The Earth's Changing Climate

506

(4)

Determining Past Climates

506

(2)

Climate Through the Ages

508

(1)

Climate During the Last 1000 Years

509

(1)

Possible Causes of Climatic Change

510

(10)

Climate Change and Feedback Mechanisms

511

(0)

Climate Change, Plate Tectonics, and Mountain Building

511

(2)

Climate Change and Variations in the Earth's Orbit

513

(2)

Climate Change and Atmospheric Particles

515

(0)

Aerosols in the Troposphere

515

(1)

Volcanic Eruptions and Aerosols in the Stratosphere

516

(1)

Focus On A Special Topic Nuclear Winter---Climate Change Induced by Nuclear War

517

(1)

Climate Change and Variations in Solar Output

518

(2)

Carbon Dioxide, the Greenhouse Effect, and Recent Global Warming

520

(7)

Oceans, Clouds, and Global Warming

520

(2)

Focus On A Special Topic The Ocean Conveyor Belt and Climate Change

522

(0)

Possible Consequences of Global Warming

522

(2)

Is the Warming Real?

524

(2)

Focus On A Special Topic The Sahel---An Example of Climatic Variability and Human Existence

526

(1)

In Perspective

527

(0)

Summary

527

(0)

Key Terms

527

(0)

Questions for Review

527

(1)

Questions for Thought

528

(0)

Problems and Exercises

528

(0)

Questions for Exploration

528

APPENDIX A

Units, Conversions, Abbreviations, and Equations

A-1

APPENDIX B

Weather Symbols and the Station Model

A-4

APPENDIX C

Beaufort Wind Scale

A-6

APPENDIX D

Humidity and Dew-Point Tables

A-7

APPENDIX E

Instant Weather Forecast Chart

A-11

APPENDIX F

Changing GMT and UTC to Local Time

A-12

APPENDIX G

Heat Index (HI) Table

A-13

APPENDIX H

Standard Atmosphere

A-14

APPENDIX I

Hurricane Tracking Chart

A-15

APPENDIX J

Adiabatic Chart

A-16

APPENDIX K

Climatic Data for Cities Throughout the World

A-17

Additional Reading Material

R-1

Glossary

G-1

Index

I-1

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