Methods of Educational and Social Science Research : An Integrated Approach

, by Krathwohl, David R.

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ISBN: 9781577663331 | 1577663330
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 1/1/2004

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Supplemental Materials

Preface for the Instructor

xiii

Preface for the Student

xix

SECTION ONE The Nature of Research

(76)

CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Two Contrasting Research Styles

(18)

Overview

(1)

Social and Behavioral Science: Important but Historically Young

(1)

Two Illustrative Studies

(1)

A Quantitative Experimental Study

(6)

A Qualitative Research Study

(7)

Summary

(2)

CHAPTER 2 The Variety of Research Methods

(17)

Overview

(1)

Contrasting the Two Approaches

(3)

A Continuum of Research Approaches

(3)

Categories of Research Studies

(4)

The Roles and Outcomes of Research

(2)

Comparison of Roles of Various Research Approaches

(1)

Summary

(3)

CHAPTER 3 From Findings to Knowledge

(24)

Overview

(1)

Introduction

(1)

An Illustration of the Journey from Findings to Knowledge

(5)

Important Characteristics of the Journey

(2)

Knowing Judgments in Everyday Life

(2)

Different Sources of Knowledge

(4)

The Norms of Knowledge Production

(4)

Ethics

(1)

Summary

(5)

CHAPTER 4 The Research Chain of Reasoning

(15)

Overview

(1)

Introduction

(1)

The Research Chain of Reasoning

(8)

The Chain of Reasoning and Qualitative Studies

(1)

Summary

(5)

SECTION TWO Foundational Research Skills

(48)

CHAPTER 5 Finding Research Problems

(21)

Overview

(1)

The Problem of the Problem

(1)

Problem Finding and Research Method

(2)

Criteria of a Good Problem

(3)

Success-Enhancing Problem-Finding Behaviors

(9)

Summary

(5)

CHAPTER 6 Finding Links to Past Research: The Literature Review

100

(25)

Overview

101

(1)

The Literature Search in Relation to Research Method

101

(1)

Goals of the Literature Search

102

(2)

The Variety of Information Sources Available

104

(1)

The Breadth of References Available

105

(4)

Computer Searches

109

(2)

Indexes and the Indexing Process

111

(7)

The Relation of Starting Points to Problem Development

118

(2)

Organizing the Search

120

(1)

Meta-Analyses

121

(1)

General Suggestions

121

(1)

Summary

122

(3)

SECTION THREE Foundational Research Concepts

125

(98)

CHAPTER 7 Causal Inference and Internal Validity

127

(31)

Overview

128

(1)

Association and Causation

129

(1)

Complications in the Concept of Cause

130

(4)

Patterns of Cause and Effect Relationships

134

(2)

Internal and External Validity as Evidence of Causation

136

(2)

Internal Validity (LP)

138

(10)

Relationship of Internal Validity (LP) to the Chain of Reasoning

148

(1)

Internal Validity (LP) and External Validity (GP) as Reduction in Uncertainty

149

(1)

Patterns of the "Basis for Sensing Attributes or Changes" Link That Facilitate Inferences of Causation

149

(3)

Can Causation Ever Be Inferred?

152

(1)

Summary

153

(5)

CHAPTER 8 Sampling, Representation, and External Validity

158

(29)

Overview

159

(1)

Introduction

159

(1)

Principles of Sampling

160

(3)

Probability and Nonprobability Sampling

163

(1)

Probability Sampling Procedures

163

(8)

Nonprobability Sampling

171

(3)

Generality, External Validity (GP), and Population Definition

174

(8)

Summary

182

(5)

CHAPTER 9 Research Criteria to Optimize and Constraints to Observe

187

(17)

Overview

188

(1)

Introduction

188

(2)

Criteria to be Optimized

190

(7)

Limits and Constraints

197

(3)

Summary

200

(4)

CHAPTER 10 Ethical Standards and Legal Constraints

204

(21)

Overview

204

(1)

Introduction

205

(1)

Legal and Institutional Protection of Human Subjects

206

(2)

Informed Consent

208

(3)

Codes of Ethics from Professional Associations

211

(2)

Collaboration with Research Subjects

213

(1)

Common Ethical Concerns

214

(4)

Researcher's Responsibility to the Institutional Review Board

218

(1)

Summary

219

(4)

Introduction to Sections Four Through Seven

223

(2)

SECTION FOUR The Continuum of Research Methods: Qualitative End

225

(124)

CHAPTER 11 Qualitative Research Methods

227

(20)

Overview

227

(1)

Introduction

228

(1)

Uses and Advantages of Qualitative Procedures

229

(4)

The Variety of Approaches to Qualitative Methods

233

(2)

Qualitative Orientation as a Point of View

235

(3)

Finding a Problem

238

(2)

Ways of Generating Qualitative Data

240

(1)

Overview of the Qualitative Process

241

(2)

Summary

243

(4)

CHAPTER 12 Fieldwork and Observation

247

(37)

Overview

248

(1)

Ways of Observing

249

(3)

Initial Steps

252

(7)

Data Gathering

259

(15)

Data Validity

274

(3)

Leaving the Field

277

(1)

Ethics

277

(2)

Tips on Observation

279

(1)

Summary

280

(4)

CHAPTER 13 Interviewing

284

(18)

Overview

285

(1)

Introduction

285

(2)

Structuring Interviewer and Respondent Roles

287

(2)

The Focused Interview

289

(1)

Using Rapport Builders

290

(2)

The Nondirective Approach

292

(2)

Choosing Interviewees: Sampling Patterns

294

(1)

Multiple Interviewers and Respondents

294

(2)

Interviewer Characteristics Affecting Responses

296

(2)

Tips on Interviewing and Hallmarks of an Interview

298

(1)

Summary

298

(4)

CHAPTER 14 Qualitative Data Analysis

302

(27)

Overview

303

(1)

Introduction

304

(1)

Early Steps in Analysis

305

(2)

The Nature of Coding

307

(7)

Drawing and Verifying Conclusions

314

(3)

Threats to the Validity of Interpretation: Rival Explanations

317

(3)

Use of Computers in Analysis

320

(3)

Fitting the Analysis Process to the Study

323

(1)

Tips on Analysis

324

(1)

Summary

325

(4)

CHAPTER 15 Conclusions, Reporting, and Quality Considerations in Qualitative Research

329

(20)

Overview

330

(1)

Introduction

330

(1)

Report Format and Organization

331

(5)

Quality Considerations in Qualitative Research

336

(8)

Hallmarks of Qualitative Research

344

(2)

Summary

346

(3)

SECTION FIVE The Continuum of Research Methods: Qualitative Quantitative Middle

349

(36)

CHAPTER 16 Survey Research and Questionnaires

351

(34)

Overview

351

(1)

Introduction

352

(1)

Survey Purposes and Planning

352

(6)

Interviews

358

(3)

Questionnaires

361

(9)

E-mail Questionnaires

370

(1)

Coding of Interview and Questionnaire Responses

370

(1)

Analysis of Interview and Questionnaire Data

371

(1)

Improving Questions, Questionnaires, and

Letters of Transmittal

372

(5)

Additional Hallmarks of Survey Research

377

(1)

A Summary Comparison of Four Survey Data Collecting Modes

377

(4)

Summary

381

(4)

SECTION SIX The Continuum of Research Methods: Quantitative End

385

(184)

CHAPTER 17 The Numeric Description of Data: Descriptive Statistics

387

(34)

Overview

388

(1)

Introduction

388

(3)

Representations of Groups of Numbers (Data Sets)

391

(5)

Descriptive Statistics

396

(18)

Appropriate Interpretation of Statistics

414

(3)

Exploring with Statistics

417

(1)

Summary

417

(4)

CHAPTER 18 Measurement, Testing, and Observation

421

(34)

Overview

422

(1)

Introduction

423

(3)

Evidence of Construct Validity

426

(6)

The Specificity of Validity

432

(3)

Reliability of Measures

435

(5)

Improvement of Validity and/or Reliability

Through Item Analysis

440

(2)

Objectivity of Measures

442

(2)

Measurement Trade-Offs

444

(1)

Advances in Measurement

444

(1)

Locating Existing Measures

445

(1)

Summary

446

(4)

Chapter Appendix

450

(5)

CHAPTER 19 The Nature and Logic of Inferential Statistics

455

(43)

Overview

455

(1)

Prologue

456

(2)

Introduction

458

(2)

Estimation

460

(4)

The Logic of Confidence Intervals

464

(1)

The Logic of Hypothesis Testing

465

(11)

The t Test of Differences Between Means

476

(2)

Sensitivity, Precision, and Statistical Power

478

(6)

The Level of Significance to Report

484

(1)

Statistical and Practical Significance

485

(1)

Proof of a Proposition Versus Its Escaping Disconfirmation

485

(1)

Violation of the Assumptions of Statistical Tests

486

(2)

Two Additional Common Inferential Statistics

488

(4)

Use of Computerized Statistical Programs

492

(1)

Possible Future Directions of Inferential Statistics

492

(1)

Summary

493

(5)

CHAPTER 20 Experimental Methods and Experimental Design

498

(55)

Overview

498

(1)

Introduction

499

(4)

The Art of Experimental Design

503

(3)

General Methods of Control

506

(3)

How Simple Experimental Designs Control Rival Explanations

509

(2)

Common Rival Explanations, and Threats to Validity

511

(13)

A Summary of Protection Offered by Six Simple Designs

524

(2)

A Summary of Common Control Problems and Their Elimination

526

(5)

Additional Designs

531

(4)

Factorial Designs

535

(1)

Causal Comparison, Ex Post Facto Studies, and After-the-Fact Natural Experiments

536

(4)

Treatment Definition and Fidelity

540

(5)

Hallmarks of Experimental Design and Tips on Constructing Them

545

(2)

Summary

547

(6)

CHAPTER 21 Meta-Analysis-Synthesis of Findings

553

(16)

Overview

553

(1)

Introduction

554

(4)

Considerations in Meta-Analytic Methodology

558

(2)

Meta-Analysis Methods

560

(2)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Quantitative Literature Summaries

562

(2)

Hallmarks of Meta-Analytic Studies and Tips for Doing Them

564

(1)

Summary

565

(4)

SECTION SEVEN Examples of Fields Applying Basic Methods

569

(46)

CHAPTER 22 Historical Research

571

(16)

Overview

571

(1)

Introduction

572

(1)

Methods of the Historian

573

(1)

History as Selective Interpretation

573

(3)

Steps in a Historical Study

576

(7)

Hallmarks of Historical Studies

583

(1)

Summary

584

(3)

CHAPTER 23 Evaluation Studies and Action Research

587

(28)

Overview

587

(1)

Introduction

588

(4)

Alternative Evaluation Approaches

592

(8)

Action Research

600

(3)

Special Problems of Doing Evaluations

603

(5)

Evaluation Standards: Protection for Evaluators and Clients

608

(1)

Hallmarks and Tips for Evaluation Studies

609

(1)

Tips for Doing Action Research

610

(1)

Summary

611

(4)

SECTION EIGHT The Larger Context of Research

615

(34)

CHAPTER 24 Optimizing Research Effectiveness Through Multiple Methods

617

(15)

Overview

618

(1)

Introduction

618

(1)

Ways Multiple Methods Enhance Research

619

(4)

Strengths and Weaknesses of Various Data Gathering Methods

623

(1)

The Power of Replication

623

(4)

Summary

627

(5)

CHAPTER 25 The Macrosystem of Educational and Social Science Research

632

(17)

Overview

632

(1)

Introduction

633

(1)

Does Science Function as Intended at the Individual Level?

633

(3)

Does Science Function as Intended at the Peer Level?

636

(3)

The Potential of the Internet

639

(1)

Does Science Function as Intended at the Societal Level?

640

(5)

What Are We to Think, Then, of Social Science Research?

645

(4)

APPENDIX Writing a Research Proposal

649

(30)

Overview

649

(1)

Definition of a Research Proposal

650

(2)

Statement of the Problem

652

(7)

Design and Procedure: General Considerations

659

(5)

Subsections Describing Design and Procedure

664

(7)

A Final Check and Review

671

(1)

Qualitative Method and Other Emergent Problem Proposals

672

(2)

Writing Formats

674

(5)

Glossary

679

(16)

References

695

(26)

Name Index

721

Subject Index

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Methods of Educational and Social Science Research : An Integrated Approach

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials