Mixed Legal Systems in Comparative Perspective Property and Obligations in Scotland and South Africa

, by Zimmermann, Reinhard; Visser, Daniel; Reid, Kenneth

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ISBN: 9780199271009 | 0199271003
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 5/12/2005

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Scotland and South Africa are two of the leading jurisdictions which integrate English common law with Continental civil law. This volume examines their experience and considers the sider lessons both for mixed legal systems and for the development of a European private law.

Preface

List of Contributors

List of Abbreviations

xiii

Table of Statutes

xxvii

Table of Cases

xxxvii

Cases and Statutes

lxxiii

Kenneth Reid

Daniel Visser

`Double Cross': Comparing Scots and South African Law

(33)

Reinhard Zimmermann

Mixed Legal Systems

(3)

South African Law

(4)

Origins

(2)

Southern Cross

(2)

Scots Law

(4)

Origins

(2)

Northern Cross

(2)

Common Ground

(9)

General pattern

(4)

Distinctive features

(5)

Connections

(4)

Early days

(1)

Modern co-operation

(3)

Observations

(7)

Benefits of comparison

(3)

Depth of doctrinal analysis

(4)

Visions

(2)

PART I: CONTRACT

Formation of Contract

(32)

Martin Hogg

Gerhard Lubbe

Introduction

(5)

A shared notion of contract

(1)

Consideration, cause and reciprocity

(2)

Formation of contract: a broad and narrow perspective

(2)

Theories on the Nature of Contract

(9)

Agreement: the subjective-objective dichotomy

(3)

The treatment of disagreement

(5)

Mistake

(1)

Offer and Acceptance

(4)

Uniformity of approach

(3)

Centrifugal tendencies

(1)

Unilateral Promise

(6)

A uniquely Scots institution

(2)

South African makeshifts

(1)

General: the pactum de contrahendo

(1)

The irrevocable offer

(2)

Conclusion

(1)

Offer and Acceptance and the Nature of Contract

(5)

The battle of forms

(1)

The postal rule

(1)

Synthesis

(3)

Conclusion

(3)

Interpretation of Contract

(28)

Laura Macgregor

Carole Lewis

Introduction

(1)

Scheme of the Chapter

(1)

Overarching Principle?

(3)

Early twentieth century---South African law

(1)

Traditional approach---Scots law

(1)

Development of a more objective approach in South Africa

(2)

Parole Evidence Rule and the Use of Extrinsic Evidence

(2)

The parole evidence rule in Scotland

(1)

The parol evidence rule in South Africa

(1)

Identificatory evidence in both systems

(1)

Wording of the Contract

(4)

Do words have a natural and ordinary meaning?

(1)

The `ordinary' and `natural' meaning of words in South African law

(1)

The `ordinary' and `natural' meaning of words in Scots law

(1)

Where the parties apply a special meaning to words or phrases

(1)

`Context'

(6)

Contractual context

(1)

Factual context of the contract at the time of formation

(3)

Surrounding and background circumstances

(1)

Extrinsic Evidence

(4)

Previous negotiations and correspondence between the parties

(2)

The parties' subsequent conduct

(1)

No direct evidence of the parties' subjective intentions

(1)

A Relaxation of the Rules on Admissibility?

(3)

Commercially Sensible Construction

(2)

Conclusion

(2)

Good Faith in Contract Law

(23)

Fritz Brand

Douglas Brodie

Introduction

(4)

The position in Scotland

(2)

The position in South Africa

(2)

A General Principle? Recent Developments in Scots and South African Law

(8)

Saayman's case

(1)

Smith's case

100

(2)

The consequences of Smith's case

102

(1)

The consequences of Olivier's minority judgement in Saayman's case

103

(2)

Restoring order again

105

(1)

Looking Into the Future

106

(8)

Constitutional values

107

(2)

Potential common law developments

109

(1)

Control of discretionary powers

109

(3)

The expectations of the parties

112

(2)

Disclosure

114

(1)

The Role of Legislation

114

(2)

Conclusion

116

(1)

Defects of Consent

117

(26)

Jacques du Plessis

William W. McBryde

Introduction

117

(1)

Error, Misrepresentation and Fraud

118

(6)

Error and the basis of contractual liability

118

(3)

The effect of error

121

(1)

Fraud, negligent misrepresentation and innocent misrepresentation

122

(2)

Force and Fear, Metus, Vreesaanjaging and Duress

124

(4)

Undue Influence

128

(4)

Facility and Circumvention

132

(2)

General and Residual Categories of Defective Consent

134

(3)

Consequences of Defective Consent

137

(3)

Conclusions

140

(3)

Illegal Contracts

143

(33)

Hector MacQueen

Alfred Cockrell

Introduction

143

(2)

When is a Contract Illegal?

145

(17)

Introduction

145

(1)

Statutory illegality

146

(2)

Non-statutory illegality

148

(3)

Restraint of trade

151

(1)

Introduction

151

(1)

The Scottish approach to restraint of trade

151

(1)

The South African approach to restraint of trade

152

(2)

Similarities and differences

154

(2)

Conclusion

156

(1)

Gaming and wagering contracts

157

(1)

Public policy: crystallised or dynamic?

158

(4)

Effects of Illegality

162

(5)

Ex turpi causa non oritur actio

162

(2)

In pari delicto potior est conditio defendentis

164

(2)

Conclusion

166

(1)

The Approach in PECL

167

(4)

Conclusion

171

(5)

Breach of Contract

176

(32)

Eric Clive

Dale Hutchison

Overview

176

(1)

Nature of Breach

177

(6)

A fragmented or a unitary concept?

177

(2)

Is breach a fault-based concept?

179

(1)

Repudiation as an anticipatory breach

180

(3)

Damages

183

(10)

Nature of the remedy

183

(1)

The basic rules

183

(1)

Non-patrimonial loss or harm

184

(3)

Damages based on the `reliance interest'

187

(4)

Unreasonable rectification costs

191

(2)

Specific Performance or Specific Implement

193

(3)

Withholding Performance

196

(3)

Nature and effect of the remedy

196

(1)

Withholding for anticipatory breach

197

(1)

Modifying harsh effects

197

(2)

Cancellation or Rescission

199

(8)

Nature and effect of remedy

199

(1)

Origins

200

(1)

Problems

200

(1)

When is the remedy available?

201

(1)

How is the remedy effected?

202

(1)

Can the remedy, once available, be lost?

203

(1)

Effect of termination for breach

204

(1)

How are any economic imbalances resulting from the termination to be dealt with?

205

(2)

Conclusion

207

(1)

Contracts for the Benefit of third Parties

208

(32)

Philip Sutherland

David Johnston

Introduction

208

(1)

Privity of Contract

209

(3)

Terminology

212

(1)

Theoretical Basis for Third-Party Contracts

213

(5)

The Third-Party Benefit

218

(1)

The Stipulator

219

(3)

Irrevocability

222

(2)

Justification of the Irrevocability Requirement

224

(5)

The Basis of the Stipulator's Right to Performance Before Delivery

229

(1)

Revocability of an Existing Right by the Stipulator and the Debtor

230

(2)

Intention to Conclude a Third-Party Contract

232

(2)

Applications of Third-Party Contracts

234

(3)

Conclusion

237

(3)

Agency

240

(31)

A. D. M. Forte

J. P. van Niekerk

Introduction: Identities and Influences

240

(3)

Fundamental Concepts

243

(4)

Agency and mandate

243

(2)

Agency as contract or relationship

245

(2)

Authority and Power: A Distinction Without a Difference?

247

(8)

Theoretical perspectives

247

(2)

Authority ex lege and ex consensu

249

(1)

Confusion and fallacy---the case of Scots law

250

(2)

Clarity and reason---the case of South African law

252

(3)

Agent's Duties: Delegation and Good Faith

255

(15)

Agency and delegation

256

(1)

Ambivalent presumptions

256

(1)

The problem of privity

257

(3)

Agency and good faith

260

(1)

Conceptual ambivalence: good faith, trust and loyalty

260

(1)

Good faith and fair dealing

261

(3)

Sources of good faith

264

(2)

Contractual good faith

266

(1)

Non-contractual good faith

267

(3)

Conclusion

270

(1)

Sale

271

(30)

Robin Evans-Jones

Alastair Smith

Introduction

271

(2)

Warrandice of Title and Warranty Against Eviction

273

(11)

Contrasting views of title and a legal transplant

273

(2)

The warranty against eviction and the warranty of quiet possession

275

(4)

Remedies

279

(4)

Qualification or exclusion of warrandice and warranty

283

(1)

Warranty Against Defects and the Actio Quanti Minoris

284

(12)

Introduction

284

(1)

Development of the actio quanti minoris

284

(1)

Scotland

284

(3)

South Africa

287

(1)

Scope of the claim

287

(2)

Relationship to the contract of sale

289

(1)

Recent developments

290

(1)

Scotland

290

(1)

South Africa

291

(3)

Conclusions

294

(2)

The Rule on Benefit and Risk

296

(4)

Conclusion

300

(1)

Lease

301

(34)

Charl Hugo

Philip Simpson

A Definition of Lease

302

(1)

The Nature of the Tenant's Right

302

(6)

Fundamental Features of the Contract

308

(3)

The temporary nature of lease

308

(1)

Rent

309

(2)

Full or partial use and enjoyment

311

(1)

Types of Lease

311

(2)

Long and short

311

(1)

Town and country?

312

(1)

Home, farms and businesses

313

(1)

Formation of the Contract

313

(1)

Obligations of the Tenant

313

(3)

Payment of rent

313

(1)

Plenishing the property

314

(1)

Use of the property

314

(1)

Restoring the property at the end of the lease

315

(1)

Obligations of the Landlord

316

(5)

Delivery

316

(1)

Maintenance

317

(2)

No disturbance of the tenant's use and enjoyment

319

(1)

Warranty against eviction

319

(1)

Compensation for and removal of improvements

320

(1)

Sub-Letting, Cession, Assignment (Delegatio) and Assignation

321

(5)

Sub-letting

322

(1)

Cession, assignment (delegatio) and assignation

323

(3)

Remedies

326

(7)

The normal contractual remedies

326

(1)

Enforcement

326

(1)

Termination

327

(1)

Keep-open clauses

328

(3)

Remedies specific to lease

331

(1)

Legal irritancy

331

(1)

Hypothec

332

(1)

Conclusion

333

(2)

Suretyship and Cautionary Obligations

335

(31)

Sandra Eden

J. T. Pretorius

Introduction

336

(2)

The Contract of Suretyship

338

(1)

Terminology

338

(1)

Formalities

339

(1)

The Principal Obligation

340

(1)

The Surety

341

(3)

Obligations of the Surety

344

(1)

The Rights of the Surety Against the Creditor

345

(2)

The benefit of discussion or excussion

345

(2)

The benefit of division amongst co-sureties

347

(1)

The Rights of the Surety Against the Principal Debtor

347

(8)

Rights based on transfer

349

(4)

Right of relief

353

(2)

Rights Against Other Co-Sureties

355

(5)

The right of recovery against co-sureties

355

(1)

Rights based on transfer

355

(1)

Right of relief

356

(1)

Right of recovery where part payment is made

357

(1)

Right of co-sureties to the benefit of division between themselves

358

(1)

Right of co-sureties to share in securities

359

(1)

Defences Available to and Discharge of the Surety

360

(3)

Discharge of the principal debtor

360

(1)

Discharge of a co-surety

361

(1)

Debtor's defences available to the surety against the creditor

362

(1)

Prejudice to the surety's right of recovery

363

(1)

Protection of the Surety---Recent Policy Developments

363

(2)

Concluding Remarks

365

(1)

PART II: DELICT AND OTHER OBLIGATIONS BY LAW

Unauthorized Management of Affairs (Negotiorum Gestio)

366

(33)

Niall R. Whitty

Deon van Zyl

Introduction

367

(3)

Negotiorum gestio in the classification of obligations

368

(1)

Aspects of the relationship between negotiorum gestio and unjustified enrichment

369

(1)

The Values Underlying the Law on Unauthorized Management

370

(3)

The Main Principles and Rules on Unauthorized Management (Negotiorum Gestio)

373

(15)

Requirements for unauthorized management

373

(1)

Management of another's affairs

373

(1)

Unauthorized and voluntary character of the management

374

(1)

Absence, ignorance or incapacity of the dominus

374

(1)

The gestor's intention or motive

375

(1)

The utility or reasonableness of the gestio

376

(1)

Utility and necessity

377

(1)

Initial utility

378

(1)

Utility and presumable wishes of the dominus

379

(1)

Typology of forms of unauthorized management

380

(1)

Forms of negotia gesta

380

(1)

Extinction of debts due by the dominus

380

(1)

Provision of aliment

381

(1)

Preservation of property

382

(1)

Prevention of loss

382

(1)

Intervention in litigation

383

(1)

Preservation of health; rescue of life or limb

383

(1)

Other doctrines resembling negotiorum gestio

384

(1)

Reciprocal rights, duties and remedies arising from unauthorized management

385

(1)

Rights of the gestor against the dominus

385

(1)

Indemnification: the debate about recompense for services

385

(2)

Possessory lien

387

(1)

Duties of the gestor and rights of the dominus

387

(1)

`Impure' or `Abnormal' Gestio: The Gestor's Claim as an Enrichment Action

388

(10)

Preliminary

388

(1)

Outline of the four categories of the extended action of the gestor

389

Unauthorized Management of Affairs (Negotiorum Gestio)

367

(22)

Management of affairs for the gestor's benefit (sui lucri causa)

389

(1)

Management of affairs of the dominus by the gestor in the bona fide belief that they are his own

390

(1)

Management of affairs of another against his express wishes

391

(2)

Management of affairs of minors

393

(1)

South African law: from the extended action of the gestor to a general enrichment action

394

(2)

The case for replacing `abnormal' negotiorum gestio by general principles of unjustified enrichment

396

(1)

The possible convergence of the South African law and the Scots law

396

(1)

Claim by the gestor's contractor in indirect enrichment cases

397

(1)

Conclusion

398

(1)

Unjustified Enrichment

399

(38)

Niall R. Whitty

Daniel Visser

Introduction

400

(1)

The Coming of a Generalized Approach to Enrichment Liability

401

(5)

Retention of the Existing Enrichment Actions or Grounds of Action

406

(1)

The General Elements of a Claim to Redress Unjustified Enrichment and the Taxonomy of Grounds of Redress

407

(10)

Enrichment

407

(2)

Impoverishment (or `mirror loss')

409

(1)

A causal link between the gain and the loss/the enrichment and the impoverishment (the `at the expense of' requirement)

410

(1)

Absence of legal justification

410

(1)

Taxonomy in Scotland

411

(2)

Taxonomy in South Africa

413

(1)

The future description of the requirement that the enrichment must be unjustified

414

(3)

Enrichment by Transfer

417

(12)

Claim to redress enrichment resulting from a transfer made in error to implement a non-existent obligation (condictio indebiti)

417

(1)

The nature of the error

417

(1)

Excusability of the error

418

(2)

Claim to redress undue transfer induced by improper compulsion

420

(1)

Claim to redress unjustified enrichment arising from a transfer made under protest

421

(1)

Transfer made for an immoral or illegal purpose (condictio ob turpem vel iniustam causam or condictio indebiti or condictio sine causa)

422

(2)

Claim to redress transfer made for a future purpose (outside contract) that fails (condictio causa data causa non secuta)

424

(1)

Enrichment resulting from transfers in the context of failed contracts

425

(1)

Transfer subject to unfulfilled contractual modus or resolutive or suspensive condition

425

(1)

Performance in terms of an inchoate agreement with a minor or other person of limited capacity

426

(2)

Claims to redress enrichment arising from defective gift or from transfer to impose obligation

428

(1)

Claim to redress enrichment arising from a transfer made without legal justification not falling under the previous headings: condictio sine causa (specialis)

428

(1)

Enrichment by Improvement of Another's Property

429

(3)

Enrichment by Invasion of Rights

432

(1)

The Measure of Recovery, Loss of Enrichment and Change of Position

432

(4)

The basic measure of recovery

433

(1)

Specific restitution

433

(1)

Restitution of money or fungibles

433

(1)

Recompense/compensation for work or services

434

(1)

Recompense for improvement of defender's property by bona fide possessor and others

434

(1)

The defences of `loss of enrichment' and `change of position'

435

(1)

Conclusion

436

(1)

Unjustified Enrichment and Failed Contracts

437

(32)

Saul Miller

Introduction

437

(3)

Contracts Terminated for Breach

440

(13)

The current law

440

(1)

Money benefits and returnable benefits in kind

441

(1)

Inherently non-returnable benefits

441

(1)

The doctrinal basis of restitution

442

(1)

The historical approach

442

(2)

Restitution is based on unjustified enrichment

444

(1)

Restitution is a contractual remedy

445

(2)

Restitution: contract or unjustified enrichment?

447

(1)

The consequences of restitution being based on unjustified enrichment

447

(1)

Loss of enrichment/change of position

448

(2)

The contract price and the quantum of a restitution claim

450

(3)

Contracts Terminated for Supervening Impossibility/Frustration

453

(7)

The current law and academic opinion

453

(3)

The case for apportioning losses: lessons from the common law

456

(2)

The principles underlying loss apportionment in frustration cases

458

(1)

Frustration and loss apportionment: theoretical possibilities

459

(1)

Contracts Terminated for Improperly Obtained Consent

460

(6)

The current law and academic opinion

461

(1)

Restitutio in integrum: contract or unjustified enrichment?

462

(1)

Restitutio in integrum with delictual claims

463

(2)

Restitutio in integrum without delictual claims

465

(1)

Conclusion

466

(3)

Enrichment by Act of the Party Enriched

469

(29)

John Blackie

Ian Farlam

The Topic

470

(1)

The Starting Point for Analysis

470

(3)

Reasonable Sums for the Use of Another's Asset

473

(12)

Scope

473

(1)

Lawful use exceeded

474

(1)

Use of money

475

(1)

Background relationship

476

(2)

Quantum of the enrichment

478

(1)

Fruits/profits from possession

479

(1)

Categories of possessor: South Africa

479

(1)

Enrichment or property law?

479

(1)

What constitutes fruits?

480

(1)

Physical fruits

480

(1)

Money fruits: mala fide possessors

481

(1)

Other money income generated?

482

(1)

Money fruits: bona fide possessors

483

(1)

Fruits made by those entitled to possess

483

(1)

The relation of claims for fruits to claims for a reasonable sum

484

(1)

Improvements: bona fide possessors

484

(1)

Intellectual Property

485

(1)

Industrial Accession

486

(1)

Particular Remedies from the IUS Commune

487

(3)

Spuilzie in Scots law

487

(1)

Condictio furtiva in South African law

488

(1)

Actio negotiorum gestorum directa

489

(1)

Other Profits Claims---Invasion of Rights

490

(2)

Fiduciaries and Contract Breakers

492

(2)

Fiduciaries

492

(1)

Contract breakers

493

(1)

Disposing of Goods to Which Others Have Title

494

(2)

Consumption/destruction

494

(1)

Sale

495

(1)

Conclusion

496

(2)

Negligence

498

(47)

Anton Fagan

Introduction

498

(1)

Negligence

499

(10)

The test

499

(5)

The concept

504

(5)

Duty

509

(28)

The nature of the duties

509

(11)

The test

520

(12)

Foreseeability and precedent

532

(5)

Remoteness

537

(8)

The test

537

(4)

The function

541

(4)

Impairment of Reputation, Dignity and Privacy

545

(31)

Jonathan Burchell

Kenneth McK. Norrie

Introduction

545

(1)

Defamation

546

(20)

The interests protected by defamation

546

(5)

The elements of the action for defamation

551

(1)

Defamatoriness

552

(3)

Truthfulness

555

(3)

Fault

558

(8)

Other Attacks on Personality

566

(8)

Pushing the boundaries of defamation

566

(2)

Types of personality interests

568

(1)

The right to dignity

569

(1)

Privacy rights

570

(4)

Conclusion

574

(2)

Nuisance

576

(29)

Francois du Bois

Elspeth Reid

Introduction

576

(3)

The Field of Nuisance

579

(3)

The Test for Nuisance

582

(14)

Nuisance, negligence and fault

586

(2)

Thesis: strict liability for nuisance in South Africa

588

(2)

Antithesis: fault as the basis of nuisance in Scotland

590

(2)

Synthesis: different `neighbourhoods', different standards

592

(4)

Private Law and the Public Interest

596

(7)

Implications for the nuisance test

598

(3)

Implications for title to sue

601

(2)

Conclusion

603

(2)

Strict Liability

605

(32)

Elspeth Reid

Max Loubser

Introduction

605

(2)

Product Liability

607

(7)

The framework of liability

607

(2)

When is a product defective?

609

(3)

Proving the existence of the defect and causation

612

(1)

Development risk defence

613

(1)

Damage to Land and Buildings

614

(6)

Rejection of Rylands v. Fletcher

614

(1)

The fault requirement

615

(1)

Activities creating a special risk of abnormal danger

616

(1)

Activities risking abnormal levels of damage

617

(1)

The position of public authorities

618

(1)

Substances falling from buildings

619

(1)

Animals

620

(6)

Background

620

(1)

Type of animal

621

(2)

Person liable

623

(1)

Type of behaviour---the contra naturam test

624

(1)

Defences

625

(1)

Vicarious Liability

626

(10)

General rule

627

(1)

Who qualifies as employee?

627

(1)

Employment and akin-to-employment relationships

628

(1)

Employee of two employers

629

(1)

Course and scope of employment

630

(1)

Intentional wrongdoing

631

(5)

Conclusion

636

(1)

PART III: PROPERTY

Property Law: Some Themes and Some Variations

637

(34)

Kenneth Reid

C. G. van der Merwe

Patterns of Similarity and Difference

638

(13)

Similarities

638

(1)

Rules

638

(3)

Reasons

641

(1)

Differences

642

(1)

Some examples

642

(1)

Local development and invention

643

(1)

Feudalism

643

(1)

Mutual influence

644

(1)

Pandectist deficit

645

(1)

Conveyancing

645

(1)

The impact of English law

646

(2)

Property as a fundamental right

648

(3)

Real Rights

651

(7)

The real rights listed

651

(1)

Rights accepted as real

651

(1)

Rights where the classification is disputed

652

(1)

Statutory real rights

653

(1)

Uncertainty: some reasons

653

(1)

Numerus clausus

654

(1)

Rights

654

(2)

Content of rights

656

(1)

Functional equivalents

657

(1)

Possession

658

(1)

Spoliation

658

(1)

Counter-spoliation

659

(1)

Ownership and Its Protection

659

(4)

The idea of ownership

659

(1)

Proprietary protection

660

(1)

Limitations on vindication

661

(2)

Land Reform

663

(8)

Background

663

(2)

South Africa

665

(1)

General

665

(1)

Restitution

665

(2)

Redistribution

667

(1)

Tenure reform

667

(2)

Scotland

669

(2)

Acquisition of Ownership

671

(32)

D. L. Carey Miller

Anne Pope

Introduction

672

(2)

Fundamental Concepts

674

(1)

Things Unowned, Lost or Abandoned

675

(2)

Things Joined or Mixed

677

(9)

General principles

677

(1)

Accession

678

(1)

Essential elements

678

(1)

Inaedificatio (fixtures)

679

(3)

Alluvion

682

(1)

Specification

682

(1)

Good faith

682

(1)

New thing (res nova)

683

(1)

Irreducibility

684

(1)

Confusion and commixtion

684

(2)

Prescription

686

(6)

General differences

686

(1)

Application to movables

687

(1)

Application to immovables

687

(2)

A Scottish peculiarity: the need for a registered deed

689

(1)

Possession

690

(2)

Derivative Acquisition

692

(9)

Scope of treatment

692

(1)

Rationale of delivery requirement

693

(1)

Contract/delivery dichotomy

693

(1)

Double sales

694

(1)

Constructive delivery

695

(1)

Brevi manu

695

(1)

Longa manu

696

(2)

Symbolical delivery

698

(1)

Constitutum possessorium

698

(1)

Payment in sale

699

(1)

Sale of Goods Act

700

(1)

Conclusion

701

(2)

Co-Ownership

703

(32)

Duard Kleyn

Scott Wortley

Introduction

704

(4)

Undivided ownership

704

(1)

Terminology

704

(1)

Free co-ownership: core principles

705

(1)

Roman law and its influence

706

(2)

The Binary System

708

(5)

Basis of the distinction

708

(2)

A sui generis category?

710

(1)

The effect of contracts

711

(2)

Rights and Duties of the Parties

713

(6)

Introduction

713

(1)

The unanimity rule

713

(3)

Reasonable or ordinary use

716

(1)

Alterations, maintenance and repairs

717

(1)

Profits and losses

718

(1)

Juristic Acts

719

(6)

Introduction

719

(1)

Acts affecting an individual share

719

(2)

Acts affecting co-owned property as an entity

721

(1)

Rights which may be granted over undivided shares

721

(1)

Rights which must be granted over the property as a whole

722

(1)

A special case: leases

723

(2)

Division

725

(10)

Introduction

725

(1)

Historical development

726

(1)

Entitlement

727

(1)

Contractual bar

727

(1)

Personal bar (estoppel)

728

(1)

Property `of common and indispensable use'

728

(1)

No immediate application for division

728

(1)

The equities of the case

729

(1)

Legislative qualifications

729

(6)

Servitudes and Real Burdens

735

(23)

W. M. Gordon

M. J. de Waal

Introduction

735

(2)

Praedial Servitudes

737

(16)

The common ground

737

(2)

The differences

739

(1)

Classification

739

(1)

Constitution

740

(2)

Scope

742

(1)

Praedial character

743

(3)

Passivity

746

(1)

Ways of necessity

747

(1)

Use for the benefited property

748

(1)

Restrictive conditions and real burdens

749

(1)

Restrictive conditions

749

(1)

Real burdens

750

(3)

Personal Servitudes

753

(3)

The differences

753

(1)

Classification

753

(1)

Use of trusts

754

(1)

The similarities

755

(1)

Conclusions

756

(2)

Rights in Security

758

(29)

Gerrit Pienaar

Andrew J. M. Steven

Introduction

758

(1)

Theory and Principles of Real Security

759

(2)

Historical background

759

(1)

The accessory nature of security

759

(1)

True securities versus functional securities

760

(1)

General and special security

760

(1)

Express Security

761

(15)

Express security by possession: pledge

761

(1)

The use of pledge in practice

762

(1)

A security in a movable asset

762

(1)

The need for delivery

763

(2)

Enforcement

765

(1)

Express security by registration: movable property

766

(1)

General

766

(1)

Notarial bond

766

(2)

Floating charge

768

(2)

Express security by registration: immovable property

770

(1)

Mortgage bond and standard security

770

(4)

Effect of registration

774

(1)

Enforcement

775

(1)

Security Arising by Operation of Law: Lien

776

(9)

General

776

(1)

Property which can be subject to a lien

777

(1)

Obligations which can be secured

778

(5)

Nature

783

(1)

Enforcement

784

(1)

Conclusion

785

(2)

Assignation/Cession

787

(32)

Petrus Nienaber

George Gretton

Cession in Context

787

(2)

The Mechanism of Cession

789

(2)

The Cessionary Act

791

(1)

Notice to the Debtor

792

(12)

Historical perspective: South Africa

793

(2)

Historical perspective: Scotland

795

(1)

Prototypes

795

(1)

Position in Scotland before intimation

796

(1)

Attachment and sequestration

796

(2)

Double cessions

798

(1)

Title to sue

798

(1)

Performance by the debtor

799

(2)

Method of intimation in Scots law

801

(1)

Notice by whom?

802

(1)

Notice to whom?

802

(1)

Future rights, contingent rights, book debts and factoring

803

(1)

Circumventing intimation by use of a trust

804

(1)

Restrictions on the Freedom to Cede

804

(5)

In general

804

(1)

Delectus personae

805

(2)

Partial cessions

807

(2)

Defences

809

(5)

The principles nemo plus iuris and assignatus utitur

809

(2)

Set-off (compensation)

811

(1)

Mutuality principle

812

(1)

Fourth party rights

813

(1)

Liability of the cessionary

813

(1)

Security Cessions

814

(4)

Synthesis

818

(1)

Trusts

819

(30)

M. J. de Waal

R. R. M. Paisley

Introduction

819

(1)

The Historical Basis

820

(5)

The influence of English law

821

(1)

The trust and the fideicommissum

821

(4)

Inherent Flexibility

825

(2)

Creation

827

(7)

Methods

827

(2)

Requirements

829

(1)

Intention

829

(1)

Form

830

(1)

Property: type and identification

830

(1)

Property: existence and transfer

831

(1)

Purposes

832

(1)

Lawfulness

832

(1)

Acceptance of office by trustee

833

(1)

Specific Matters Common to Both Jurisdictions

834

(10)

The real right of the trustee

834

(2)

The personal right of the beneficiary

836

(3)

Separate estates or patrimonies

839

(3)

Trusteeship as an office

842

(2)

Specific Differences Between the Jurisdictions

844

(3)

Constructive and resulting trusts

844

(1)

Registration and publicity

845

(2)

Conclusions

847

(2)

Index

849

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Mixed Legal Systems in Comparative Perspective Property and Obligations in Scotland and South Africa

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

FREE SHIPPING

Rent More, Save More! Use code: BBRENTAL

5% off 1 book, 7% off 2 books, 10% off 3+ books

Mixed Legal Systems in Comparative Perspective Property and Obligations in Scotland and South Africa

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

Digital License