Modeling and Control of Fuel Cells

The emerging fuel cell (FC) technology is growing rapidly in its applications, from small-scale portable electronics to large-scale power generation. This book gives electric power engineering students and practitioners an understanding of the FC dynamic modeling and response prediction necessary to be able to evaluate FC response and to design controllers to adapt FCs to particular applications. Because of the multidisciplinary nature of the subject area, Modeling and Control of Fuel Cells is also appropriate for non-electrical engineering students and engineers and scientists working in the fuel cell area.

M. HASHEM NEHRIR, PhD, is a Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Montana State University-Bozeman. His primary areas of interest include modeling and control of power systems, alternative energy power generation systems, and applications of intelligent controls to power systems. In addition to this book, he is the author of two textbooks and the author or coauthor of numerous technical papers. He is a member of the IEEE PES Energy Development and Power Generation Committee and currently is Vice Chair of the IEEE PES Energy Development Subcommittee.

CAISHENG WANG, PhD, is Assistant Professor at Wayne State University in Detroit, Michigan. He has worked in the areas of both large power systems and distributed generation systems, including alternative energy sources. As a part of his doctoral research, during 2002–2006, Dr. Wang was involved in fuel cell modeling and control and design of hybrid alternative energy power generation sources, including fuel cells.

Preface	p. xiii
Acknowledgments	p. xvii
Introduction	p. 1
Background: A Brief History of U.S. Electric Utility Formation and Restructuring	p. 1
Power Deregulation and Distributed Generation	p. 3
DG Types	p. 7
Fuel Cell DG	p. 9
The Hydrogen Economy	p. 13
Introduction	p. 13
Challenges of Transition to a Hydrogen Economy	p. 14
Hydrogen Production	p. 15
Hydrogen Production by Reforming Natural Gas	p. 16
Hydrogen Production from Coal	p. 17
Hydrogen Production from Nuclear Energy	p. 18
Hydrogen Production by Water Electrolysis	p. 19
Solar Energy to Hydrogen	p. 19
Wind Energy to Hydrogen	p. 20
Biomass Energy to Hydrogen	p. 20
Hydrogen Storage and Distribution	p. 21
Department of Energy Hydrogen-Related Activities	p. 22
Hydrogen Production	p. 22
Hydrogen Basic Research	p. 23
Hydrogen Delivery	p. 23
Hydrogen Storage	p. 24
Hydrogen Energy Conversion (Fuel Cells)	p. 24
The Role of This Book	p. 26
References	p. 27
Principles of Operation of Fuel Cells	p. 29
Introduction	p. 29
Chemical and Thermal Energy of an Element	p. 30
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics	p. 31
The First Law of Thermodynamics	p. 31
The Second Law of Thermodynamics	p. 32
Fundamentals of Electrochemical Processes	p. 34
The Gibbs Free Energy	p. 34
Energy Balance in Chemical Reactions	p. 35
The Nernst Equation	p. 37
Fuel Cell Basics	p. 38
Types of Fuel Cells	p. 40
Fuel Cell Equivalent Circuit	p. 53
Capacitance of Double-Layer Charge Effect	p. 54
Summary	p. 55
References	p. 56
Dynamic Modeling and Simulation of PEM Fuel Cells	p. 57
Introduction: Need for Fuel Cell Dynamic Models	p. 57
Nomenclature (PEMFC)	p. 58
PEMFC Dynamic Model Development	p. 60
Gas Diffusion at the Electrodes	p. 62
Material Conservation	p. 64
PEMFC Output Voltage	p. 65
PEMFC Voltage Drops	p. 67
Thermodynamic Energy Balance for PEMFC	p. 69
PEMFC Model Structure	p. 71
Equivalent Electrical Circuit Model of PEMFC	p. 72
PEMFC Model Validation	p. 77
References	p. 83
Dynamic Modeling and Simulation of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells	p. 85
Introduction	p. 85
Nomenclature (SOFC)	p. 86
SOFC Dynamic Model Development	p. 88
Effective Partial Pressures	p. 89
Material Conservation	p. 92
SOFC Output Voltage	p. 94
Activation Voltage Drop	p. 95
Thermodynamic Energy Balance for Tubular SOFC	p. 98
The Fuel Cell Tube	p. 99
Fuel	p. 100
Air Between Cell and Air Supply Tube (AST)	p. 100
Air Supply Tube	p. 101
Air in AST	p. 101
SOFC Dynamic Model Structure	p. 102
SOFC Model Response-Constant Fuel Flow Operation	p. 103
Steady-State Characteristics	p. 103
Dynamic Response	p. 106
Dynamics Due to the Double-Layer Charge Effect	p. 106
Dynamics Due to the Effect of Pressure	p. 108
Dynamics Due to the Effect of Temperature	p. 109
SOFC Model Response-Constant Fuel Utilization Operation	p. 111
Steady-State Characteristics	p. 112
Dynamic Response	p. 113
References	p. 114
Principles of Operation and Modeling of Electrolyzers	p. 116
Principle of Operation of Electrolyzers	p. 116
Dynamic Modeling of Electrolyzers	p. 117
Electrolyzer Steady-State (V-I) Characteristics	p. 119
Modeling Hydrogen Production Rate	p. 120
Electrolyzer Thermal Model	p. 122
Electrolyzer Model Implementation	p. 123
References	p. 125
Power Electronic Interfacing Circuits for Fuel Cell Applications	p. 126
Introduction	p. 126
Overview of Basic Power Electronic Switches	p. 128
Diode	p. 128
Thyristor	p. 128
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)	p. 130
Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)	p. 131
Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO)	p. 132
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)	p. 133
MOS-Controlled Thyristor (MCT)	p. 133
ac/dc Rectifiers	p. 135
Circuit Topologies	p. 135
Simplified Model for Three-Phase Controllable Rectifiers	p. 138
dc to dc Converters	p. 140
Boost Converters	p. 141
Circuit Topology	p. 141
Small-Signal State-Space Model	p. 142
Average Model for Long-Time Simulation	p. 144
Buck Converters	p. 146
Circuit Topology	p. 146
Small-Signal State-Space Model for Buck dc/dc Converters	p. 148
Average Model for Long-Time Simulation	p. 149
Three-Phase dc/ac Inverters	p. 150
Circuit Topology	p. 150
State-Space Model	p. 153
abc/dq Transformation	p. 156
dq Representation of the State-Space Model	p. 157
Ideal Model for Three-Phase VSI	p. 159
References	p. 162
Control of Grid-Connected Fuel Cell Power Generation Systems	p. 163
Introduction	p. 163
Grid-Connected System Configuration	p. 164
PEMFC Unit Configuration	p. 166
SOFC Unit Configuration	p. 166
Controller Designs for dc/dc Converters and the Inverter	p. 168
Circuit and Controller Design for the Boost dc/dc Converter	p. 168
Circuit Design	p. 168
Controller Design	p. 170
Controller Design for the Three-Phase VSI	p. 173
Current Control Loop	p. 174
Voltage Control Loop	p. 176
Overall Power Control System for the Inverter	p. 181
Simulation Results	p. 182
Desired P and Q Delivered to the Grid-Heavy Loading	p. 182
PEMFC DG	p. 182
SOFC DG	p. 184
Desired P Delivered to the Grid, Q Consumed from the Grid: Light Loading	p. 186
PEMFC DG	p. 187
SOFC DG	p. 188
Load-Following Analysis for Fuel Cells	p. 189
Fixed Power Supply from the Grid	p. 189
Fixed Power Supply from the FCDG	p. 191
Fault Analysis	p. 192
Summary	p. 195
References	p. 195
Control of Stand-Alone Fuel Cell Power Generation Systems	p. 198
Introduction	p. 198
System Description and Control Strategy	p. 199
Load Transient Mitigation Control	p. 201
Circuit Model for Lead-Acid Batteries	p. 202
Battery Charge/Discharge Controller	p. 203
Filter Design	p. 204
Simulation Results	p. 205
The Load Transients	p. 206
The dc Load Transients	p. 206
The ac Load Transients	p. 207
Load Transient Mitigation	p. 209
PEMFC System	p. 209
SOFC System	p. 212
Battery Charge/Discharge Controller	p. 214
Summary	p. 216
References	p. 216
Hybrid Fuel Cell Based Energy System Case Studies	p. 219
Introduction	p. 219
Hybrid Electronically Interfaced Systems	p. 221
The dc-Coupled Systems	p. 222
The ac-Coupled Systems	p. 224
Stand-Alone Versus Grid-Connected Systems	p. 225
Fuel Cells in Hybrid Combined Heat and Power Operation Mode	p. 226
Case Study I: A Hybrid Stand-Alone Wind-PV-FC System	p. 227
System Configuration	p. 227
System Unit Sizing	p. 230
System Component Characteristics	p. 232
The Wind Energy Conversion System Model	p. 233
The Photovoltaic Array Model	p. 234
The Fuel Cell and Electrolyzer Models	p. 235
System Control	p. 236
The Overall Power Management Strategy	p. 236
The Wind-Turbine Pitch Angle Controller	p. 236
The PV Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Control	p. 238
The ac Bus Voltage Regulator	p. 240
The Electrolyzer Controller	p. 241
Simulation Results	p. 241
Case Study II: SOFC Efficiency Evaluation in Hybrid Operation Mode	p. 247
Thermodynamic Laws and SOFC Efficiency	p. 248
Hydrogen Fuel Heating Values	p. 253
SOFC Electrical Efficiency	p. 255
SOFC Efficiency in Hybrid CHP Operation Mode	p. 256
Summary	p. 259
References	p. 260
Present Challenges and Future of Fuel Cells	p. 265
Introduction	p. 265
Fuel Cell System Operations	p. 266
Fuel Processor	p. 266
Fuel Cell Stack	p. 267
Power Conditioner System	p. 269
Balance of Plant (BOP) Systems	p. 272
Present Challenges and Opportunities	p. 272
Cost	p. 272
Fuel and Fuel Infrastructure	p. 273
Materials and Manufacturing	p. 274
U.S. Fuel Cell R&D Programs	p. 275
DOE's SOFC-Related Programs	p. 276
Future of Fuel Cells: A Summary and Authors Opinions	p. 278
References	p. 279
Instruction for Running the PEMFC and SOFC Models and Their Distributed Generation Application Models	p. 282
Index	p. 291
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Modeling and Control of Fuel Cells Distributed Generation Applications

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