Motivation Theory, Research, and Application

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ISBN: 9781111841096 | 1111841098
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 4/19/2012

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With its signature focus on evolutionary psychology, MOTIVATION: THEORY, RESEARCH AND APPLICATION, 6E reflects the latest developments from the field in its thorough coverage of the biological, behavioral, and cognitive explanations for human motivation. The book clearly presents the advantages and drawbacks to each of these explanations, allowing students to draw their own conclusions. Relevant and timely, the text helps readers understand the processes that activate their behavior by drawing examples from topics that interest students, including sleep, stress, eating disorders, helping behavior, emotion, and more. Extremely student friendly, the text includes numerous study aids to maximize learner success, while vivid graphic illustrations offer additional insight into key concepts. In addition, its unique thematic approach gives instructors ultimate flexibility.

Overview	p. 1
Overview: Conceptualizing and Measuring Motivation and the Role of Evolution in Motivation	p. 3
Introduction	p. 3
Angie's Problem	p. 4
The Concept of Motivation	p. 4
The Measurement of Motivation	p. 4
Characteristics of Motivation	p. 6
Activation	p. 6
Direction	p. 7
The Study of Motivation: Categories of Analysis	p. 7
Nomothetic versus Idiographic	p. 7
Innate versus Acquired	p. 8
Internal versus External	p. 8
Mechanistic versus Cognitive	p. 9
Levels of Analysis	p. 9
Physiological Analysis	p. 9
Individual Analysis	p. 10
Social Analysis	p. 11
Philosophical Analysis	p. 12
Analysis of Angie's Problem	p. 12
Major Constructs in Motivation	p. 13
Energy	p. 13
Physiological Mechanisms	p. 13
Learning	p. 14
Social Interáction	p. 14
Cognitive Processes	p. 14
The Activation of Motivation	p. 14
Homeostasis	p. 14
Hedonism	p. 15
Growth Motivation	p. 15
Philosophical and Physiological Roots of Motivational Theory	p. 15
Philosophical Antecedents	p. 16
Physiological Antecedents	p. 17
The Flow of Ideas about Motivation	p. 19
Evolution and Motivation	p. 21
Life	p. 21
Mitosis and Meiosis	p. 21
Sex	p. 22
The Advantages of Sexual Reproduction	p. 23
The Pleasures of Sex	p. 23
Interim Summary	p. 25
Higher Motives?	p. 25
Evolution	p. 25
Natural Selection	p. 26
Sexual Selection	p. 21
Female versus Male Sexual Strategies	p. 27
Mate Selection in Humans	p. 27
Instincts, Emotion, Thoughts and Behavior	p. 28
The Authors' Bias	p. 29
Summary	p. 30
Key Terms	p. 31
Suggestions for Further Reading	p. 32
Web Resource	p. 32
Physiological Mechanisms of Motivation	p. 33
Genetic Contributions to Motivated Behavior	p. 35
Early Instinct Theories	p. 36
William James	p. 36
William McDougall	p. 37
Criticisms of the Early Instinct Theories	p. 39
Classical Ethology	p. 39
Ethological Terms	p. 40
Intention Movements and Social Releasers	p. 43
Motivational Conflict	p. 44
Reaction Chains	p. 44
Imprinting	p. 45
Criticisms of the Classical Ethological Approach	p. 46
Some Modifications to the Basic Ideas of Ethology	p. 47
Human Ethology	p. 48
Additional Innate Behaviors	p. 51
Ethological Concepts Concerning Sex and Aggression	p. 53
Modem Ethological Approaches	p. 57
Behavioral Ecology	p. 57
Cognitive Ethology	p. 57
Evolutional Psychology	p. 58
Summary	p. 59
Key Terms	p. 60
Suggestions for Further Reading	p. 60
Physiological Mechanisms of Arousal	p. 61
Introduction	p. 61
Arousal Theory	p. 62
The Reticular Activating System	p. 64
Hebb's Theory	p. 65
Psychophysiological Measures	p. 67
Problems With Arousal Theory	p. 67
Sleep	p. 68
General Properties of Sleep	p. 68
Stages of Sleep	p. 69
Dreams	p. 72
Sleep Deprivation	p. 74
Physiology of Sleep	p. 75
Brain Stem Mechanisms That Promote Arousal	p. 75
Neurotransmitters That Promote Arousal	p. 75
Brainstem Regions That Promote NREM Sleep	p. 76
Neurotransmitters That Promote Sleep	p. 76
Brainstem Regions That Promote REM Sleep	p. 76
Brainstem Neural Flip-Flops	p. 77
A Sleep Chemical	p. 77
Possible Functions of Sleep	p. 78
Stress	p. 82
Definition of Stress	p. 82
Systemic and Psychological Stress	p. 82
Endocrine System Activity and Stress	p. 83
The General Adaptation Syndrome	p. 84
Diseases of Adaptation	p. 85
Life Change, Stress, and Illness	p. 86
Criticisms of the Hardiness Concept	p. 89
Other Buffers of Stress	p. 90
Health Psychology	p. 92
Psychoneuroimmunology	p. 92
Conditioning of Immune Responses	p. 93
Psychosocial Factors and the Immune System	p. 94
Placebo Effects	p. 95
Sexual Arousal	p. 96
Stages of the Human Sexual Response Cycle	p. 96
Other Bodily Changes During Sexual Behavior	p. 96
Summary	p. 98
Key Terms	p. 99
Suggestions for Further Reading	p. 100
Physiological Mechanisms of Regulation	p. 101
What Do We Eat: Taste and Smell as Gatekeepers	p. 101
Why Do We Eat?	p. 102
What Determines How Much We Eat?	p. 102
Sensory Specific Satiety	p. 102
Basic Metabolism	p. 103
Local Theories	p. 104
Central Theories	p. 106
Homeostatic Regulation	p. 107
Regulation of Hunger	p. 107
Short-Term Regulation	p. 108
The Glucostatic Theory of Hunger	p. 109
Peripheral Detectors for Short-Term Regulation	p. 110
Long-Term Regulation	p. 112
Energy Regulation: Two Processes or One?	p. 114
Nonhomeostatic Eating Behavior	p. 115
Failure of Regulation	p. 116
Anorexia Nervosa	p. 116
Cross-Cultural Evidence of Anorexia	p. 117
Neurobiology of Anorexia	p. 118
The Serotonin Hypothesis	p. 118
Heredity Factors	p. 119
Brain Structures Involved in Anorexia	p. 119
Bulimia Nervosa	p. 120
Obesity	p. 124
Obesity Explanations	p. 126
The Role of Habituation in Obesity	p. 128
Obesity as Addiction	p. 128
Stress	p. 129
Hunger Regulation Reconsidered	p. 129
Regulation of Thirst	p. 130
Mouth Factors	p. 130
Extracellular and Intracellular Mechanisms	p. 131
The Kidney	p. 131
Osmometric Thirst	p. 131
Volumetric Thirst	p. 133
Nonhomeostatic Drinking	p. 134
Inhibitory Control of Drinking	p. 135
Regulation of Sexual Motivation	p. 135
Sex Hormones: Organization and Activation	p. 135
Sexual Dimorphism	p. 136
Hypothalamic Regulation of Sexual Behavior	p. 137
Regulation of Aggressive Motivation	p. 139
The Limbic System	p. 140
Types of Aggression	p. 142
Summary	p. 143
Key Terms	p. 145
Suggestions for Further Reading	p. 145
Web Resources	p. 146
The Behavioral Approaches: Learning, Incentives, and Hedonism	p. 147
Learned Motives: Classical, Instrumental, and Observational Learning	p. 149
Pavlovian Classical Conditioning	p. 150
Experimental Neurosis	p. 152
Elimination of Motivated Behaviors Through Conditioning	p. 153
Interoceptive Conditioning	p. 154
Learned Aversions	p. 156
Learned Taste Aversions in Cancer Patients	p. 158
Instrumental Conditioning	p. 160
Quantity, Quality, and Contrasts of Reinforcement	p. 161
Primary and Conditioned Reinforcement	p. 163
Generalized Conditioned Reinforcers	p. 163
Tokens and Token Economies	p. 164
Classical-Operant Interactions in Motivation	p. 166
Acquired Fear	p. 166
Conditioned Emotional Responses (CERs)	p. 168
Learned Helplessness	p. 169
Symptoms of Helplessness	p. 170
Causes and Prevention of Helplessness	p. 170
Observational Learning (Modeling)	p. 172
Modeling Processes: Attention, Retention, Reproduction	p. 173
Modeling Processes: Vicarious Reinforcement	p. 173
Learning and Aggression	p. 174
Classical Conditioning and Aggression	p. 174
Instrumental Conditioning and Aggression	p. 175
Modeled Aggression	p. 176
Sexual Motivation and Learning	p. 177
Learned Sexual Values	p. 178
Summary	p. 179
Key Terms	p. 180
Suggestions for Further Reading	p. 180
Web Resource	p. 180
Incentive Motivation	p. 181
Incentives as Energizers	p. 182
Incentive Motivation (K)	p. 183
The Persistence of Behavior	p. 185
Incentives as Generators of Emotion	p. 188
Mowrer: Fear, Hope, Relief, and Disappointment	p. 188
Incentives as Carriers of Information	p. 189
Tolman: Cognitive Formulations	p. 190
Predictability	p. 191
The Overmier and Lowry Model	p. 192
Klinger: Meaningfulness	p. 194
Incentive Aspects of Sexual Motivation	p. 196
Pheromones	p. 196
Learned Sexual Stimuli	p. 198
Female Attractiveness	p. 199
Male Attractiveness	p. 201
Incentive Motivation and Physical Addictions	p. 202
Behavioral Addictions	p. 203
Summary	p. 203
Key Terms	p. 204
Suggestions for Further Reading	p. 205
Web Resources	p. 205
Hedonism and Sensory Stimulation	p. 206
Hedonism	p. 206
P. T. Young: Sign, Intensity, and Duration	p. 207
Sensory Stimulation and the Hedonic Continuum	p. 208
The Motivational Influence of Sensations	p. 209
Hedonic Value and Contact Receptors	p. 210
Pain	p. 210
Novelty, Curiosity, and Exploratory Behavior	p. 212
Behaviors Released by Stimulation	p. 213
The Need for Stimulation	p. 214
Attachment	p. 216
Sensation Seeking	p. 223
Opponent-Process Theory: Hedonism Revisited	p. 225
Drug Addiction: An Alternative to the Incentive-Sensitization View	p. 226
Thrill Seeking	p. 227
Social Attachment	p. 228
Summary	p. 229
Key Terms	p. 230
Suggestions for Further Reading	p. 230
Web Resources	p. 231
Cognitive Approaches to Motivation	p. 233
Cognitive Motivation: Expectancy-Value Approaches	p. 235
Tolman's Purposive Behavior	p. 236
Characteristics of Molar Behavior	p. 236
Purpose and Cognition	p. 236
Kurt Lewin's Force Field Theory	p. 239
The Person	p. 240
Motivational Properties of the Inner-Personal Region (Tension)	p. 240
The Psychological Environment	p. 241
Expectancy-Value Theory	p. 243
Social Learning Theory	p. 243
Expectancy-Value Theory and the Need for Achievement	p. 246
Revisions to Need-Achievement Theory	p. 251
Attitudes, Behaviors, and Expectancy-Value	p. 253
The Theory of Planned Behavior	p. 254
Comparing and Contrasting Three Expectancy-Value Theories	p. 257
Social Loafing	p. 257
Expectancy- Value Theory and Social Loafing	p. 259
Summary	p. 264
Key Terms	p. 266
Suggestions for Further Reading	p. 266
Web Resources	p. 267
Cognitive Consistency and Social Motivation	p. 268
Cognitive Consistency Theory	p. 269
Balance Theory	p. 269
Problems With Balance Theory	p. 270
Cognitive Dissonance	p. 271
Research on Dissonance	p. 272
When Prophecy Fails	p. 275
Challenges to Dissonance Theory	p. 276
Self-Perception Theory	p. 276
Dissonance or Self-Perception?	p. 277
A Problem for Consistency Theories	p. 278
Social Motivation	p. 278
Social Facilitation and Inhibition: Coaction and Audience Effects	p. 279
Social Influence	p. 281
Conformity	p. 281
Factors That Affect Conformity Motivation	p. 283
Criticisms of Conformity Research	p. 283
Why Do People Conform?	p. 285
Compliance	p. 285
Obedience	p. 288
Why a Motive to Obey?	p. 290
Bystander Intervention	p. 292
A Model of Intervention	p. 293
Factors That Affect Helping Behavior	p. 295
What Motivates Helping?	p. 297
Summary	p. 300
Key Terms	p. 301
Suggestions for Further Reading	p. 301
Web Resources	p. 302
Cognitive Motivation: Attribution Approaches	p. 303
Attribution Theory	p. 304
Heider's Naive Psychology	p. 305
The Jones and Davis Correspondent Inference Theory	p. 306
Kelley's Covariation Theory	p. 308
Weiner's Attributional Analysis of Achievement Behavior	p. 311
Biases in Attribution	p. 314
Application of Research on Attributions	p. 323
Summary	p. 329
Key Terms	p. 330
Suggestions for Further Reading	p. 330
Web Resources	p. 330
Cognitive Motivation: Competence and Control	p. 331
Carl Rogers and Positive Regard	p. 332
The Fully Functioning Individual	p. 333
Criticisms of Rogers's Approach	p. 333
Abraham Maslow and Self-Actualization	p. 334
Hierarchy of Needs	p. 335
A Revised Hierarchy of Needs	p. 340
Competence	p. 341
Personal Causation	p. 342
Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory of Human Agency	p. 343
Self Determination Theory	p. 345
The Rise of Positive Psychology	p. 348
Summary	p. 350
Key Terms	p. 351
Suggestions for Further Reading	p. 352
Web Resources	p. 352
Emotion and Motivation	p. 353
The Emotions as Motivators	p. 355
Emotion From a Biological Perspective	p. 356
Darwin's Principles of Emotion	p. 356
Serviceable Associated Habits	p. 356
Antithesis	p. 357
Direct Action of the Nervous System	p. 357
Recognition of Emotional States	p. 357
Other Formulations of Emotion After Darwin	p. 358
The James-Lange Theory	p. 358
The Cognitive-Physiological Theory of Emotion	p. 361
Ethology	p. 363
Brain Mechanisms of Emotion	p. 366
The Amygdala, Orbital Frontal Cortex, and Cingulate Cortex	p. 366
Emotion from a Learning Perspective	p. 369
Classical Conditioning and Emotion	p. 369
Operant/Instrumental Conditioning and Emotion	p. 369
Emotional Modeling	p. 370
The Preparedness of Emotional Learning	p. 372
Emotion from a Cognitive Perspective	p. 373
Attribution of Emotion	p. 374
Emotion as Primary and Universal	p. 376
The Tomkins Model	p. 377
Izard's Differential Emotions Theory	p. 378
The Circumplex Model of Affect	p. 380
Facial Expression and Emotion	p. 384
Summary	p. 388
Key Terms	p. 390
Suggestions for Further Reading	p. 390
Web Resources	p. 391
Endview	p. 393
Conclusions	p. 395
References	p. 399
Name Index	p. 447
Subject Index	p. 465
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Motivation Theory, Research, and Application

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