Nanofiltration

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ISBN: 9781856174053 | 1856174050
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 12/29/2004

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Nanofiltration processes are finding wide applications in several 'wet' industries, such as water/wastewater treatment, water re-use, the textile, diary and food industries and the pulp and paper industry. Despite this, there has been no definitive book until now which explains the principles of the techniques and their potential and actual applications.

Introduction

(4)

History of nanofiltration membranes 1960 to 1990

(28)

Overview

(1)

Introduction

(1)

First-generation NF membranes

(4)

Cellulose acetate asymmetric membranes

(1)

Deficiencies in cellulosic membranes

(1)

Polyelectrolyte complexes

(1)

Polyamide membranes

(1)

Polysulfones and other polymer membranes

(1)

Early studies of charged reverse osmosis (hyperfiltration) membranes

(1)

Dynamic membranes

(1)

Polyelectrolyte membranes

(1)

Early models of NF selectivity

(2)

Negative salt rejection

(1)

Solutions of one electrolyte

(1)

Separation by negative salt rejection

(1)

Early development of industrial NF: ionic modification of asymmetric cellulose acetate

(2)

Early NF composites

(3)

General

(2)

Plasma polymerization

(1)

Graft polymerization

(1)

NF composites of the 1980s

(1)

Piperazineamide membranes

(1)

Other NF interfacially produced composites

(1)

Modification of RO membrane composites to bring them into the NF range

(1)

Composites produced by non-inter facial crosslinking

(2)

Polyvinyl alcohol composites

(1)

Sulfonated engineering plastics as selective barriers

(1)

Polyethyleneimine

(1)

Chemically stable NF membranes

(4)

Chemically stable polymeric asymmetric membranes

(1)

Oxidant and pH stable composite membranes

(1)

Solvent-stable NF composites

(2)

Chemically stable inorganic NF and polymeric/inorganic hybrids

(1)

Conclusions

(7)

References

(4)

Glossary & symbols

(2)

Nanofiltration membrane materials and preparation

(34)

General introduction

(1)

Phase inversion

(7)

Introduction

(1)

Basic principles

(3)

Type of polymer

(1)

Composition of the casting solution

(2)

Post-casting treatment

(1)

Coagulation bath

(1)

Post treatment

(1)

Interfacial polymerisation

(4)

Introduction

(1)

Supports used

(1)

Monomers

(3)

Polymerisation parameters

(1)

Additives

(1)

UV-curing / wet interface polymerisation

(1)

Coating

(2)

Introduction

(1)

Specific examples

(1)

Surface modification of membranes

(4)

Introduction

(1)

Plasma treatment

(1)

Classical organic reactions

(1)

Polymer grafting

(1)

Photochemical modification

(1)

Surfactant modification

(1)

Ceramic membranes

(6)

Introduction

(1)

General procedure

(2)

Zirconia

(1)

Titania

(1)

Alumina

(1)

Hafnia

(1)

Tinoxide

(1)

Mixed oxides

(1)

Supports

(1)

Post-synthesis modifications

(1)

Concluding remarks and future scope

(9)

Acknowledgements

(1)

References

(5)

Glossary & symbols

(3)

Module design and operation

(22)

Introduction

(4)

The role of the module

(1)

Concentration polarisation and crossflow

(4)

Fouling

(1)

Module types and characteristics

(5)

Plate and frame

(1)

Spiral-wound

(1)

Tubular

(1)

Hollow fibre and capillary

(1)

Other

(1)

Module characteristics

(1)

Spiral-Wound module - design features

(4)

Feed channel spacers

(2)

Modelling and optimisation

(1)

Flux enhancing strategies

(2)

High shear -- vibrating the membrane

(1)

High shear -- rotor/stator modules

(1)

Bubbling

(1)

System design and operation

(3)

Module arrangements

(2)

Diafiltration

(1)

Conclusions

(3)

References

(1)

Nomenclature

(1)

Glossary & symbols

(1)

Membrane characterization

(30)

Introduction

(1)

Characterization methods for nanofiltration membranes

(1)

Performance parameters

(9)

Retention measurements of charged molecules

(5)

Rejection of uncharged solutes

(4)

Pure water permeability

100

(1)

Morphology related parameters

100

(7)

Membrane porous structure

100

(5)

Hydrophobicity

105

(1)

Chemical structure

106

(1)

Charge related parameters

107

(2)

Electro-kinetic measurements

108

(1)

Titration

109

(1)

Impedance spectroscopy

109

(1)

Nanofiltration membranes for non-aqueous systems

109

(2)

Conclusion

111

(8)

Performance parameters

111

(1)

Morphology parameters

112

(1)

Charge parameters

112

(1)

Non-aqueous systems

112

(1)

Nomenclature

113

(1)

References

113

(4)

Glossary & symbols

117

(2)

Modelling the performance of nanofiltration membranes

119

(28)

Introduction

120

(1)

Historical background

120

(1)

A Consistent description of rejection and flux

121

(8)

Rejection of uncharged solutes

122

(3)

Rejection of salts

125

(4)

Including pore size distributions

129

(9)

Log-normal pore size distribution

130

(2)

Truncation of the log-normal distribution function

132

(1)

Overall rejection of uncharged solutes

133

(1)

Overall rejection of salts

134

(1)

Volumetric flux and porosity

135

(1)

Application of the present analysis

135

(3)

A linearised model for engineering calculations

138

(3)

Conclusions

141

(6)

Acknowledgements

142

(1)

References

142

(3)

Nomenclature

145

(1)

Glossary & symbols

146

(1)

Chemical speciation effects in nanofiltration separation

147

(22)

Introduction

148

(1)

Chemical speciation

148

(4)

Effect of ionic strength on chemical speciation

150

(1)

Effects of temperature and pressure on chemical speciation

151

(1)

Review of effects of solute size, charge and concentration on retention by NF membranes

152

(1)

Solution processes influencing speciation and retention

153

(12)

Acid-base transformations

153

(4)

Complexation

157

(2)

Precipitation

159

(3)

Oxidation-reduction

162

(1)

Adsorption

163

(2)

Effect of concentration polarisation on speciation and retention

165

(2)

Exceedance of solubility product and precipitation of solids

165

(1)

Aggregation of macro-molecules and precipitated solids

165

(1)

Formation of alternative complexes and multi-nuclear species

166

(1)

Conclusion

167

(2)

References

167

(1)

Glossary & symbols

168

(1)

Fouling in nanofiltration

169

(72)

Introduction

170

(3)

Fouling characterisation

173

(6)

Flux measurement and fouling protocols

173

(1)

Normalisation of membrane performance

174

(1)

Feed water fouling potential

175

(3)

Membrane autopsy

178

(1)

Fouling mechanisms

179

(11)

Concentration polarisation (CP)

181

(2)

Osmotic pressure

183

(1)

Adsorption

183

(1)

Gel layer formation

184

(1)

Cake formation and pore blocking

185

(1)

Critical flux and operating conditions

185

(2)

Additional fouling mechanisms

187

(3)

Organic fouling

190

(7)

Introduction and definition of organic fouling

190

(1)

Common organic foulants

190

(2)

Adsorption

192

(2)

Gel layer formation

194

(1)

Cake formation

194

(1)

Pore blocking/plugging

195

(1)

Impact of solute-solute interactions and salts

195

(1)

Impact of fouling on retention

196

(1)

Scaling

197

(8)

Introduction and definition of scaling

197

(2)

Solubility and super-saturation of salts

199

(3)

Common scalants

202

(1)

Characterisation of scales

203

(1)

Mechanisms of scale formation

204

(1)

Colloidal and particulate fouling

205

(7)

Introduction and definition of colloidal and particulate fouling

205

(1)

Colloid properties

206

(1)

NF membrane properties

207

(1)

Colloid transport and deposition

208

(4)

Biofouling

212

(7)

Introduction and definition of biofouling

212

(1)

Biofilms

212

(2)

Detection of biofilms in Membrane systems

214

(1)

Microbial composition of membrane biofilms

215

(2)

Consequences of biofilm formation in membrane systems

217

(1)

Biofilm matrix and biofilm control

217

(2)

Fouling prevention & cleaning

219

(10)

Pretreatment as fouling prevention

219

(1)

Membrane modification for fouling prevention

219

(1)

Cleaning methods

219

(5)

Determination of cleaning effectiveness

224

(4)

Examples of cleaning applications and cleaning process protocols

228

(1)

Regeneration of cleaning solutions

229

(1)

Conclusions

229

(12)

Acknowledgements

229

(1)

References

229

(10)

Glossary & symbols

239

(2)

Pretreatment and hybrid processes

241

(22)

Introduction

242

(1)

Pretreatment - an overview

242

(1)

Importance of pretreatment in NF

242

(1)

Non-membrane pretreatment methods

243

(6)

Control of inorganic precipitation

243

(3)

Removal of colloids and solids

246

(1)

Removal of organic substances

246

(1)

Biological fouling prevention

247

(1)

Biological pretreatment

248

(1)

Pretreatment methods using filter media

249

(4)

Conventional filtration

249

(1)

Microfiltration (MF)

250

(1)

Ultrafiltration (UF)

251

(2)

Nanofiltration as a pretreatment

253

(3)

Pretreatment before reverse osmosis (RO)

253

(1)

Pretreatment before electrodialysis (ED)

254

(1)

Pretreatment before ion-exchange (IX)

255

(1)

Pretreatment before evaporation

256

(1)

NF as post-treatment and polishing technology

256

(3)

Purification

256

(1)

Fractionation

257

(2)

Conclusions

259

(4)

Acknowledgements

259

(1)

References

259

(3)

Glossary & symbols

262

(1)

Water treatment

263

(24)

Introduction

264

(1)

Overview of nanofiltration applications in drinking water

264

(1)

Plant design

265

(7)

Membrane selection

265

(1)

Nanofiltration treatment systems

266

(1)

Configurations with spiral wound membranes

267

(1)

Configurations with tubular membranes

268

(2)

Pre-treatment for spiral wound membranes

270

(1)

Post-treatment

270

(1)

Residual disposal

271

(1)

Plant operation and monitoring

272

(1)

Case studies

273

(7)

Mery-sur-Oise

273

(4)

Sulphate removal: Jarny

277

(2)

Pesticide removal and softening of a borehole water: Debden Road

279

(1)

Plants treating highly coloured water

280

(4)

Conclusion

284

(3)

References

285

(1)

Glossary & symbols

286

(1)

Water reclamation, remediation and cleaner production with nanofiltration

287

(18)

Introduction

288

(1)

Reclamation of municipal effluent

288

(7)

Project drivers - the importance of water reclamation

288

(2)

Advantages of NF in municipal reclamation applications

290

(1)

Process fundamentals

290

(2)

Process limitations

292

(3)

Conclusion on NF water reclamation applications

295

(1)

Ground water remediation

295

(5)

Project drivers

295

(1)

Advantages of NF

296

(1)

Process features and fundamentals

296

(3)

Process limitations

299

(1)

Conclusions to groundwater remediation

300

(1)

Cleaner production

300

(3)

Sulphate removal from ChlorAlkali brine circuit

300

(1)

Cyanide recovery in gold processing

301

(2)

Conclusions

303

(2)

References

303

(1)

Symbols

304

(1)

Subscripts

304

(1)

Glossary

304

(1)

Nanofiltration in the food industry

305

(24)

Introduction

306

(1)

Applications in the dairy industry

307

(7)

General

307

(1)

Concentration and demineralisation of whey

307

(3)

Concentration and demineralisation of UF-whey permeate

310

(1)

Treatment of ion-exchange resin regenerate

311

(1)

Filtration and re-use of CIP solutions

312

(2)

Applications in the sugar industry

314

(3)

General

314

(1)

Concentration of dextrose syrup

315

(1)

Concentration of thin juice

316

(1)

Demineralisation of coloured brine from anion-exchange resin elution solutions

317

(1)

Applications in the edible oil industry

317

(4)

General

317

(1)

Solvent-based de-gumming

318

(1)

Direct de-gumming

319

(1)

Deacidification

320

(1)

New developments and potential applications

321

(3)

General

321

(1)

NF for continuous cheese production process

321

(1)

NF for production of amino acids and oligosaccharides

322

(1)

Desalination of carboxymethylinulin

323

(1)

Production of alternative sweeteners

323

(1)

Filtration and recycling of process water

323

(1)

Conclusions

324

(5)

References

324

(4)

Glossary & symbols

328

(1)

Nanofiltration in the chemical processing Industry

329

(34)

Introduction

330

(1)

Inorganic chemical industry

330

(4)

Characterization of the industry

330

(1)

Industrial processes in the inorganic chemical industry

330

(1)

Multi-purpose NF-RO seawater desalination

331

(1)

Purification of salt brine from natural deposits by nanofiltration

332

(1)

Pollution treatment in the inorganic chemical industry

333

(1)

Organic chemical industry

334

(9)

Characterization of the industry

334

(1)

Potential and actual applications for NF in the organic chemical industry

335

(8)

Pharmaceutical and biotechnology industry

343

(10)

Research and development bench test technology

343

(1)

General industrial process description

344

(1)

NF applications in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industry

345

(8)

Petrochemical industry

353

(5)

Solvent lube dewaxing

353

(2)

Removal of contaminants

355

(1)

Deacidifying crude oil

356

(1)

Secondary oil recovery

356

(1)

Produced water

357

(1)

Concluding remarks

358

(5)

Acknowledgements

358

(1)

References

359

(2)

Glossary & symbols

361

(2)

Nanofiltration in the pulp and paper industry

363

(16)

Introduction

364

(1)

NF modules and demands in the pulp and paper industry

365

(2)

Pulp and paper waters that could be processed with membranes and reused

367

(1)

The pulp and paper making process in an integrated mill

367

(1)

Water streams in an integrated mill

368

(1)

Existing mill stage NF plants

368

(3)

Pilot and bench scale systems

371

(3)

Conclusions

374

(5)

Acknowledgements

375

(1)

References

375

(2)

Glossary & symbols

377

(2)

Nanofiltration of textile dye effluent

379

(16)

Introduction

380

(1)

Comparison of nanofiltration with ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis for textile effluent treatment

381

(1)

Nanofiltration of textile dye effluent

382

(5)

Effect of membrane charge

383

(1)

Effect of electrolyte and dye concentration on concentration polarisation

383

(1)

Effect of electrolyte valency

384

(3)

Membrane fouling with dye effluents

387

(1)

COD and BOD removal in complex effluents

387

(1)

Hybrid systems

388

(3)

Conclusion

391

(4)

Acknowledgements

392

(1)

References

392

(1)

Glossary & symbols

393

(2)

Nanofiltration in landfill leachate treatment

395

(18)

Introduction

396

(1)

Landfill leachate

396

(4)

Generation of landfill leachate

396

(2)

Characteristics of landfill leachate

398

(1)

Legal standards for treated landfill leachate

399

(1)

Overview of currently employed processes

400

(5)

Biological treatment

400

(1)

Adsorption

401

(1)

Oxidation/reduction

401

(1)

Membrane processes

402

(1)

Concentrate removal

403

(1)

Process combinations

404

(1)

Dumpsite leachate treatment by nanofiltration

405

(6)

General features of NF in landfill leachate treatment

405

(1)

NF as single process

405

(1)

Biology and NF

405

(2)

Biology and NF with concentrate treatment by adsorption/oxidation

407

(1)

RO with concentrate treatment by NF, crystallisation and high pressure RO

408

(2)

Biology, NF and adsorption on powdered activated carbon

410

(1)

Economics of the described processes

411

(1)

Conclusion

411

(2)

References

412

(1)

Nanofiltration bioreactors

413

(22)

Introduction

416

(2)

General

416

(1)

Reactor types

417

(1)

Membrane fermentors

418

(7)

Product formation

418

(3)

Wastewater treatment

421

(3)

Engineering

424

(1)

Enzyme reactors

425

(3)

Oxidation/reduction reactions

425

(3)

Engineering

428

(1)

New developments and opportunities

428

(7)

References

429

(4)

Glossary & symbols

433

(2)

Photocatalytic nanofiltration reactors

435

(24)

Introduction

436

(1)

Background

437

(4)

Basic principles of heterogeneous photocatalysis

438

(1)

NF membranes application to wastewater treatment in photocatalytic membrane reactors

439

(2)

Applications and alternativeprocesses

441

(10)

Possible system configurations

441

(4)

Irradiation mode of the photoreactors

445

(1)

Investigation on general NF membranes behaviour

446

(1)

Examples of contaminant removal

447

(4)

Conclusions

451

(8)

Acknowledgements

453

(1)

References

453

(5)

Glossary & symbols

458

(1)

Nanofiltration in metal and acid recovery

459

(20)

Introduction

460

(1)

Fundamentals of metal rejection in acidic solutions

460

(5)

Selectivity

461

(2)

Permeate flux: Influence of acid viscosity and metal ion concentration

463

(1)

Membrane stability

464

(1)

Applications in treatment of acidic industrial liquors

465

(4)

Nanofiltration of 10 wt% sulfuric acid liquor

465

(1)

Nanofiltration of 20 wt% sulfuric acid anodising solutions

465

(2)

Purification of 33 wt% sulfuric acid with nanofiltration

467

(1)

Nanofiltration of hydrochloric acid pickling waste

467

(1)

Purification of phosphoric acid by nanofiltration

467

(2)

Separation of nitric acid from heavy metals by nanofiltration

469

(1)

Application of nanofiltration in mineral processing

469

(6)

Nanofiltration in gold processing

470

(1)

Nanofiltration in copper processing

471

(2)

Nanofiltration in uranium processing

473

(2)

Conclusion

475

(4)

References

475

(2)

Glossary & symbols

477

(2)

Trace contaminant removal with nanofiltration

479

(42)

Introduction

480

(1)

Nanofiltration in water and wastewater treatment

480

(1)

Occurrences of trace organics and their effects on health & environment

481

(10)

Disinfection by-products

483

(1)

Persistent organic pollutants

484

(1)

Pesticides

485

(1)

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs)

486

(3)

Pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs)

489

(2)

Trace organic removal mechanisms in nanofiltration

491

(11)

Molecular compound characteristics and groupings

492

(1)

Size exclusion

493

(3)

Charge interaction

496

(2)

Interactions due to polarity

498

(2)

Adsorption

500

(2)

Concluding remarks

502

(1)

Removal of inorganic trace contaminants by nanofiltration

502

(10)

Characterisation of inorganic trace contaminants

503

(2)

Retetention mechanisms

505

(1)

Arsenic

506

(2)

Uranium

508

(1)

Boron

509

(1)

Fluoride

510

(1)

Nitrate

511

(1)

Concluding remarks

511

(1)

Conclusions

512

(9)

Acknowledgements

512

(1)

References

512

(8)

Glossary & symbols

520

(1)

Non-aqueous applications of NF

521

(16)

Introduction

522

(1)

Materials and membranes

522

(6)

Characteristics of nanofiltration membranes for organic solvent systems

526

(2)

Applications

528

(5)

Dewaxing

529

(1)

Oleochemistry

530

(1)

Homogeneous catalysis

531

(2)

Final remarks

533

(4)

Acknowledgements

533

(1)

References

533

(3)

Glossary & symbols

536

(1)

Conclusions

537

(6)

Index

543

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Nanofiltration

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

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Summary

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