Nanoscale Technology in Biological Systems

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ISBN: 9780849319402 | 0849319404
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 12/20/2004

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As science continues to explore the power and potential of nanotechnology, the field of biology presents some of the most exciting avenues for applications. Nanoscale Technology in Biological Systems reviews recent accomplishments in the field of nanotechnology and introduces their application to human biology. The book focuses on the application of nanofabrication to biomedical devices, evaluates new physical methods for cell isolation and manipulation, and discusses intracellular communication at the molecular level. It also explores the application of nanobiology to cardiovascular disease, oncology, transplantation, and a range of related disciplines.Presenting the latest information on the promising collaboration between nanotechnology and biology, this book provides an understanding of the principles underlying the application of nanotechnology to basic science research, applied research, and clinical practice. It is an invaluable reference for a diverse range of research in cell biology, biochemistry, materials science, bioengineering, and biotechnology.

Chapter 1 Biomaterials: Historical Overview and Current Directions

(24)

Russell K. Woo, D. Denison Jenkins, and Ralph S. Greco

1.1 Introduction

(1)

1.2 Historical Background

(1)

1.3 First-Generation Biomaterials (1950's-1960's)

(7)

1.3.1 General Characteristics

(2)

1.3.2 Naturally Occurring Biomaterials

(1)

1.3.3 Metals and Alloys

(3)

1.3.3.1 Pure Metals

(1)

1.3.3.2 Alloys

(1)

1.3.3.3 Shape-Memory Alloys (SMAs)

(1)

1.3.4 Ceramics

(1)

1.3.5 Polymers

(1)

1.3.6 Composites

(1)

1.4 Second-Generation Biomaterials (1970's-2000)

(6)

1.4.1 General Characteristics

(2)

1.4.2 Biodegradable Polymers

(1)

1.4.3 Hydrogels

(3)

1.4.4 Bioactive and Biodegradable Ceramics

(1)

1.5 Third-Generation Biomaterials (2000-Present)

(5)

1.5.1 Biomaterials in Tissue Engineering

(1)

1.5.2 Micro/Nanotechnology and Biomaterials

(25)

1.5.2.1 Microfabrication and Microtechnology

(1)

1.5.2.2 Nanofabrication and Nanotechnology

(3)

1.6 Conclusion

(1)

References

(4)

Chapter 2 The Host Response to Implantable Devices

(14)

D. Denison Jenkins, Russell K. Woo, and Ralph S. Greco

2.1 Overview of the Immune System

(4)

2.2 Host Response to Implanted Devices

(5)

2.3 Nanotechnology and the Immune Response

(1)

2.4 Conclusion

(1)

References

(4)

Chapter 3 Nanobiotechnology

(16)

Peter Wagner

3.1 Introduction

(3)

3.2 Learning from Nature

(2)

3.2.1 Linear and Rotary Molecular Motors

(1)

3.2.1.1 F1F0ATPase

(1)

3.2.1.2 Linear Molecular Motors

(1)

3.2.2 Abalone Shells

(1)

3.3 DNA Nanotechnology

(2)

3.3.1 Structural DNA Assembly

(1)

3.3.2 Nanopore DNA Sequencing

(1)

3.3.3 DNA Coupled to Carbon Nanotubes

(1)

3.3.4 DNA-Modified Surfaces

(1)

3.4 Nanoparticles

(3)

3.4.1 Nanoparticles for Biological Assays

(1)

3.4.2 Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery Vehicles

(2)

3.4.3 Nanoparticles as Contrast Agents

(1)

3.5 Path into the Future and Economic Considerations

(2)

References

(4)

Chapter 4 Next Generation Sensors for Measuring Ionic Flux in Live Cells

(18)

Rainer Fasching, Eric Tao, Seoung-Jai Bai, Kyle Hammerick, R. Lane Smith, Ralph S. Greco, and Fritz B. Prinz

4.1 Introduction

(1)

4.2 Background

(1)

4.3 Nanoprobes and Tip Characterization

(6)

4.3.1 Electrochemical Characterization

(5)

4.4 Probe Arrays

(3)

4.4.1 Silicon Nitride Cantilever Array with Single Tips and Tip Arrays

(1)

4.4.2 Multiple Arrays of UltraSharp High-Aspect-Ratio Silicon Tips

(1)

4.4.3 Fabrication of Silicon Via Structures

(2)

4.5 Potential Impact of Nanoprobe Measurements

(2)

4.5.1 Neutrophils

(1)

4.5.2 Chondrocytes

(1)

4.6 Summary and Future Directions

(1)

References

(5)

Chapter 5 Synthesis of Cell Structures

(30)

Kyle Hammerick, WonHyoung Ryu, Rainer Fasching, Seoung-Jai Bai, R. Lane Smith, Ralph S. Greco, and Fritz B. Prinz

5.1 Introduction

(1)

5.2 Multidimensional Organization of Tissues and Organs

(3)

5.2.1 Pancreas

(1)

5.2.2 Liver

(1)

5.2.3 Cartilage

(1)

5.3 Cell Patterning

(2)

5.3.1 Cell Patterning Method

(1)

5.3.2 Nanopatterning Technologies

(1)

5.4 Bioartificial Devices

(1)

5.5 Microfabrication for Advanced Cell Culture Systems

(4)

5.5.1 Silicon Micromachining

(1)

5.5.2 Biodegradable Material Processing

(3)

5.6 Synthesizing Cell-Patterned Degradable Polymer Structures

(13)

5.6.1 Structured Polymeric Thin Films with Cells

(4)

5.6.2 Structured Silicon Thin Films with Cells

(1)

5.6.3 Interconnected Silicon Structures with Patterned Cells

(3)

5.6.4 Patterned Multiple Layers: A Cartridge-Based Parallel Plate Bioartificial Liver

(3)

5.7 Conclusions

(1)

Acknowledgments

(1)

References

(6)

Chapter 6 Cellular Mechanotransduction

103

(40)

Lidan You and Christopher R. Jacobs

6.1 Introduction

104

(1)

6.2 Mechanical Stimuli on Cells

105

(11)

6.2.1 Pressure

105

(2)

6.2.2 Strain

107

(3)

6.2.2.1 Hair Cell

107

(1)

6.2.2.2 Chondrocyte

108

(1)

6.2.2.3 Fibroblast

108

(1)

6.2.2.4 Bone Cells

109

(1)

6.2.3 Fluid Flow-Induced Shear Stress

110

(4)

6.2.3.1 Endothelial Cell

110

(1)

6.2.3.2 Chondrocyte

110

(1)

6.2.3.3 Bone Cells

110

(3)

6.2.3.4 Bone Marrow Stromal Cells

113

(1)

6.2.4 Streaming Potentials

114

(1)

6.2.5 Chemotransport

115

(1)

6.3 Cell Detection of Mechanical Stimuli

116

(4)

6.3.1 Mechanosensitive Channel/Mechano-Gated Channel

116

(1)

6.3.1.1 Endothelial Cells

116

(1)

6.3.1.2 Bone Cells

116

(1)

6.3.2 Mechanosensitive Receptors

117

(1)

6.3.3 Extracellular Matrix, Integrin, Cytoskeleton Complex

117

(3)

6.3.3.1 Pericellular Matrix as a Transducer of Shear Stress to Intracellular Cytoskeleton

118

(1)

6.3.3.2 Strain Amplification Model in Bone Cell Mechanotransduction

118

(1)

6.3.3.3 Tensegrity Mechanism

119

(1)

6.3.3.4 Mechanosomes

120

(1)

6.4 Cellular Response to Mechanical Stimuli

120

(8)

6.4.1 Activation of Second Messengers

121

(1)

6.4.1.1 Ca²+

121

(1)

6.4.1.2 cAMP

122

(1)

6.4.2 Cytoskeleton Reorganization

122

(1)

6.4.3 Intracellular Signaling Proteins

123

(1)

6.4.4 Gene Transcription

124

(1)

6.4.5 Release of Autocrine/Paracrine Factors

125

(2)

6.4.5.1 NO

125

(1)

6.4.5.2 PGE2

125

(1)

6.4.5.3 Extracellular Nucleotides

126

(1)

6.4.5.4 Growth Factors

127

(1)

6.4.6 Production of Matrix Proteins

127

(1)

6.4.7 Gap Junction

128

(1)

6.5 Summary

128

(1)

References

129

(14)

Chapter 7 Nanoarchitectures, Nanocomputing, Nanotechnologies and the DNA Structure

143

(32)

S. Barbu, M. Morf, and A.E. Barbu

7.1 Introduction and Background

143

(3)

7.2 DNA and Related Structures

146

(5)

7.2.1 DNA Conventions

147

(1)

7.2.2 DNA Network Structure

148

(3)

7.3 Dynamic and Computer Systems View

151

(11)

7.3.1 Differentiable Invariant Manifolds

152

(2)

7.3.2 Coupling of Chaotic Systems as a Synchronization Process

154

(1)

7.3.3 Topological Aspects of Flows as a Network Architecture

155

(1)

7.3.4 Chiral Topology Aspects as Fundamental Flows: The DNA Connector

156

(6)

7.4 Data Representation, Flow Modeling, and the Dynamic in Biosystems

162

(7)

7.4.1 Signal Coding: Data Representation and Riccati Equations in Flow Models

163

(1)

7.4.2 From Xmoz Gates to the Game of Life

163

(2)

7.4.3 Biologically Robust Design

165

(4)

7.5 Conclusions and Outlook

169

(1)

References

169

(2)

Selected Theses (also the references therein)

171

(4)

Chapter 8 Single-Molecule Optical Trap Studies and the Myosin Family of Motors

175

(42)

David Altman and James A. Spudich

8.1 Introduction

176

(1)

8.2 Myosins

176

(4)

8.2.1 Overview of the Myosin Family

176

(2)

8.2.2 Myosin II

178

(1)

8.2.3 Myosin V

179

(1)

8.2.4 Myosin VI

180

(1)

8.3 Early Myosin Studies

180

(2)

8.3.1 Reducing the System to Its Essential Parts

180

(1)

8.3.2 In Vitro Motility Assays: Insights and Limitations

181

(1)

8.4 Single-Motor Optical Trap Assays

182

(4)

8.4.1 Single-Molecule Experiments

182

(1)

8.4.2 The Optical Trap

183

(1)

8.4.3 The Three-Bead Assay

183

(1)

8.4.4 The Single-Bead Assay

184

(1)

8.4.5 Experimental Considerations for the Optical Trap

184

(2)

8.4.6 Optical Trap Assays with Feedback

186

(1)

8.5 Myosin II

186

(7)

8.5.1 Working Stroke Measurements

186

(3)

8.5.2 Measuring the Force of the Stroke: Rethinking the Position-Clamp

189

(1)

8.5.3 Displacement Durations and the Kinetics of the Acto-Myosin Interaction

190

(2)

8.5.4 Coupling and Efficiency

192

(1)

8.6 Myosin V

193

(8)

8.6.1 Demonstrating Processivity: A Return to Gliding Filament Assays

193

(1)

8.6.2 Demonstrating Processivity with Optical Traps

194

(1)

8.6.3 Of Strokes and Step Sizes

195

(3)

8.6.4 Dwell Time Measurements

198

(1)

8.6.5 Settling the Lever Arm Debate?

199

(2)

8.7 Myosin VI

201

(9)

8.7.1 The Lever-Arm Model Falls Short

201

(1)

8.7.2 Load-Affected Stepping Behavior

202

(3)

8.7.3 Effects of Load on Myosin VI: Formulating a Model of Stepping

205

(4)

8.7.4 Load Effects on Nucleotide Binding: Formulating a Model of Anchoring

209

(1)

8.8 Conclusions

210

(2)

References

212

(5)

Chapter 9 Biomineralization: Physiochemical and Biological Processes in Nanotechnology

217

(10)

Brent R. Constantz

9.1 Introduction

271

9.2 Crystal Nucleation

218

(3)

9.3 Crystal Growth

221

(4)

9.4 Conclusions

225

(1)

References

225

(2)

Chapter 10 Polyelectrolyte Behavior in DNA: Self-Assembling Toroidal Nanoparticles

227

(18)

Mary X. Tang

10.1 Introduction

227

(1)

10.2 Toroidal DNA Nanoparticles: Experimental Observations

228

(4)

10.3 "Counterion-Condensation" vs. "Condensation"

232

(1)

10.4 What Are "Semiflexible Polyelectrolytes," and How Do They Form Toroids?

233

(2)

10.5 Particle Aggregation

235

(3)

10.6 Summary and Implications for Bionanotechnology

238

(1)

References

239

(6)

Chapter 11 Micro- and Nanoelectromechanical Systems in Medicine and Surgery

245

(26)

Michael E. Gertner and Thomas M. Krummel

11.1 Introduction

245

(1)

11.2 Materials Science

246

(4)

11.3 Disease-Specific Microtechnologies

250

(15)

11.3.1 Diabetes

250

(5)

11.3.2 Cardiovascular Disease

255

(3)

11.3.3 Remote Sensing

258

(1)

11.3.4 Gastrointestinal Tract

259

(1)

11.3.5 Oncology

259

(3)

11.3.6 Applications to Epilepsy, Hydrocephalus, and Neurotrauma

262

(1)

11.3.7 Surgical Technology

263

(2)

11.4 Conclusions

265

(1)

References

266

(5)

Chapter 12 Imaging Molecular and Cellular Processes in the Living Body

271

(24)

Christopher H. Contag

12.1 Overview

272

(2)

12.2 Advances in Imaging Have Their Foundation in Cellular and Molecular Biology

274

(2)

12.2.1 Reductionist to Intregrative Approaches

274

(1)

12.2.2 Structure vs. Function

275

(1)

12.2.3 Correlative Cell Culture Assays

275

(1)

12.3 Established and Emerging Technologies for In Vivo Molecular Analyses

276

(4)

12.3.1 Clinical Imaging Modalities

276

(3)

12.3.1.1 CT and Ultrasound

276

(1)

12.3.1.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging

277

(1)

12.3.1.3 Nuclear Medicine Techniques of PET and SPECT Imaging

278

(1)

12.3.2 Technologies Best Suited for Imaging in Animal Models

279

(1)

12.3.2.1 Optical Imaging Techniques

279

(1)

12.3.2.2 Combination Approaches

280

(1)

12.4 Reporter Genes for Imaging In Vivo Gene Expression Patterns

280

(5)

12.4.1 PET Reporter Genes

281

(1)

12.4.2 SPECT Reporter Genes (NIS)

281

(1)

12.4.3 Fluorescent Proteins

282

(1)

12.4.4 Luciferase and Related Proteins

282

(1)

12.4.5 Lac Z and Activation of Gd-Containing Compounds

283

(1)

12.4.6 Multifunctional Reporter Genes

284

(1)

12.5 Dyes and Reagents

285

(1)

12.5.1 Quantum Dots

285

(1)

12.6 Summary and Future Outlook

286

(1)

References

286

(9)

Chapter 13 Tissue Engineering and Artificial Cells

295

(20)

Robert Lane Smith

13.1 Introduction

295

(2)

13.2 Artificial Cells as Unit Structures

297

(4)

13.2.1 Plasma Membranes

297

(2)

13.2.2 Membrane Trafficking

299

(1)

13.2.3 Prototypic Cell Progenitors

300

(1)

13.3 Artificial Cell Prototypes and Design Considerations

301

(2)

13.3.1 Intracellular Membranes and Enzyme Systems

301

(1)

13.3.2 Channel Proteins

302

(1)

13.3.3 Ion Transport

303

(1)

13.4 Artificial Cells as Liposomes

303

(3)

13.4.1 Nuclear Function

305

(1)

13.4.2 Enzymatic Activity

305

(1)

13.4.3 Immune Recognition

305

(1)

13.5 Artificial Cells and Nanostructured Membrane Systems

306

(1)

13.6 Red Blood Cell Substitutes

306

(1)

13.7 Safety

307

(1)

13.8 Conclusions and Future Directions

307

(1)

Acknowledgments

308

(1)

References

308

(7)

Chapter 14 Artificial Organs and Stem Cell Biology

315

(26)

Robert Lane Smith

14.1 Introduction

316

(25)

14.1.1 Definitions

317

(1)

14.1.2 Need

317

(1)

14.1.3 Availability

317

(1)

14.2 Stem Cell Competence

318

(1)

14.2.1 Pluripotent

318

(1)

14.2.2 Totipotent

319

(1)

14.2.3 Immortalized

319

(1)

14.3 Embryonic Stem Cells

319

(1)

14.3.1 Germ Layers

319

(1)

14.3.2 Neural Crest

320

(1)

14.4 Adult Stem Cells

320

(1)

14.4.1 Mesenchymal

321

(1)

14.4.2 Hematopoietic

321

(1)

14.4.3 Neural

321

(1)

14.5 Mesenchymal Stem Cells

322

(1)

14.5.1 Cartilage

322

(1)

14.5.2 Bone

322

(1)

14.5.3 Tendon

323

(1)

14.6 Hematopoietic Stem Cells

323

(1)

14.6.1 Identification

323

(1)

14.6.2 Isolation

324

(1)

14.6.3 Bone Marrow

324

(1)

14.7 Neural Stem Cells

324

(1)

14.7.1 Endogenous Cells

324

(1)

14.7.2 Blood-Brain Barrier

325

(1)

14.8 Stem Cell Niche and Tissue Repair

325

(2)

14.8.1 Liver Regeneration

327

(1)

14.8.2 Muscle Repair

327

(1)

14.8.3 Pancreatic Beta Cells

327

(1)

14.9 Substrate-Dependent Differentiation

328

(1)

14.9.1 Natural Products

328

(1)

14.9.2 Polymerics

328

(1)

14.9.3 Bioglasses and Ceramics

329

(1)

14.10 Nanotechnology and Scaffold Fabrication

329

(2)

14.10.1 Fixed Surface Adhesion

330

(1)

14.10.2 Biodegradable Surfaces

330

(1)

14.10.3 Microfluidics

330

(1)

14.11 Conclusions and Future Directions

331

(1)

Acknowledgments

331

(1)

References

332

(9)

Chapter 15 Microbial Biofilms

341

(18)

Alfred M. Sporrnann, Kai Thormann, Renee Saville, Soni Shukla, and Plamena Entcheva

15.1 Introduction

341

(1)

15.2 Ubiquitous Nature of Microbial Biofilms

342

(3)

15.2.1 Biofilms in Human Environment

342

(2)

15.2.2 Biofilms in Natural Environments

344

(1)

15.3 Properties of Microbial Biofilms

345

(9)

15.3.1 Differential Growth

345

(1)

15.3.2 Functional Heterogeneity

346

(1)

15.3.3 Metabolic Interactions

346

(4)

15.3.4 Signaling Interactions

350

(2)

15.3.5 Phase Variation and Phenotypic Adaptation

352

(2)

15.4 Conclusion

354

(1)

Acknowledgment

354

(1)

References

355

(4)

Chapter 16 Nanobiology in Cardiology and Cardiac Surgery

359

(18)

Theo Kofidis and Robert C. Robbins

PART I: Diagnostic Applications of Nanobiology and Nanotechnology

16.1 Molecular Imaging of Angiogenesis

361

(1)

16.2 Cellular Imaging

361

(1)

16.3 Artificial Molecular Receptors

361

(1)

16.4 Fluid Acceleration Sensors

362

(1)

16.5 Therapeutic Applications

362

(4)

16.5.1 Targeted Antiproliferative Drug Delivery/Prevention of Restenosis after Percutaneous Revascularization

362

(1)

16.5.2 Smart Drugs

363

(1)

16.5.3 Nanorobotics

363

(1)

16.6 DNA-based Nanodevices

363

(1)

16.7 Angiogenesis Assist Devices

364

(1)

16.8 The "Respirocyte"

364

(1)

16.9 The "Clottocyte"

365

PART II: Applications of Nanobiology/Nanotechnology in Cardiological and Cardiosurgical Practice

16.10 Applications in the Therapy of Myocardial Ischemia

366

(1)

16.11 Extracorporeal Circulation/Restoration of Coronary Flow/Reperfusion, Free Radicals, Toxic Oxygen Species and Promising Nanotechnological Applications

367

(1)

16.12 Nanotechnological Applications in Trauma/Bleeding/Wound Healing in Cardiac Surgery

368

(1)

16.13 Nanotechnology and Aortic Surgery

369

(1)

16.14 Tissue Engineering of Bioartificial Heart Muscle/Stem Cell Transfer for Myocardial Restoration and Nanobiology

370

(2)

References

372

(5)

Chapter 17 Translating Nanotechnology to Vascular Disease

377

(30)

Michael D. Kuo, Jacob M. Waugh, Chris J. Elkins, and David S. Wang

17.1 Introduction

377

(1)

17.2 Genomics and Proteomics for Vascular Disease

378

(6)

17.2.1 Genomics

378

(1)

17.2.2 DNA Microarrays

379

(1)

17.2.3 Gene Expression Profiling in Vascular Disease

380

(1)

17.2.4 Translating Genomics to Therapy

381

(1)

17.2.5 Beyond Genomics Proteomics, the Next Frontier

382

(1)

17.2.6 Translating Proteomics to Vascular Disease

383

(1)

17.3 Vascular Biosensors

384

(5)

17.3.1 Optical

384

(2)

17.3.2 Nanoparticles and Nanopores

386

(1)

17.3.3 Nanowires and Nanotubes

387

(2)

17.4 Nanoscale Therapeutic Transport Systems for Vascular Disease

389

(2)

17.5 Guided Remodeling: An In Vivo Vascular Engineering Paradigm

391

(3)

17.6 From Angiogenesis to Vasculogenesis

394

(1)

17.7 Bioactive Endovascular Stents

395

(3)

17.8 Concluding Remarks

398

(1)

References

398

(9)

Chapter 18 Nanotechnology and Cancer

407

(20)

Jeffrey A. Norton

18.1 Introduction and Definitions

407

(2)

18.2 Cellular Research

409

(2)

18.3 Diagnosis

411

(3)

18.4 Imaging

414

(5)

18.4.1 Brain Tumors

416

(1)

18.4.2 Prostate Cancer

417

(1)

18.4.3 Quantum Dots

418

(1)

18.5 Treatment

419

(5)

References

424

(3)

Chapter 19 N anotechnology in Organ Transplantation

427

(16)

Stephan Busque, Hootan Roozrokh, and Minnie Sarwal

19.1 Introduction

427

(1)

19.2 Microarrays in Transplantation

428

(5)

19.2.1 DNA Arrays

428

(1)

19.2.2 Application of Microarrays to Solid Organ Transplantation

429

(2)

19.2.3 Limitations of Microarray Analysis

431

(1)

19.2.4 Concluding Remarks

432

(1)

19.3 Artificial Organs

433

(5)

19.3.1 The Kidney

433

(1)

19.3.2 The Liver

434

(1)

19.3.3 The Pancreas

435

(3)

19.3.4 Concluding Remarks

438

(1)

References

438

(5)

Chapter 20 Crossing the Chasm: Adoption of New Medical Device Nanotechnology

443

(22)

Brent R. Constantz

20.1 Introduction

444

(1)

20.2 Stepping stones to Technology Adoption

444

(1)

20.2.1 Adoption

445

(1)

20.2.2 Audiences for New Technology

445

(1)

20.2.3 Intellectual Property Community

445

(1)

20.2.4 Clinical and Scientific Community

446

(3)

20.2.5 Health Delivery Professionals

449

(1)

20.2.6 Healthcare Providers

449

(1)

20.2.7 Heathcare Payers

450

(1)

20.2.8 Patients

451

(1)

20.2.9 Sales Professionals

451

(1)

20.2.10 Distribution

452

(1)

20.2.11 Professional Societies

453

(1)

20.2.12 Regulatory Bodies

453

(1)

20.2.13 Quality Concerns

454

(1)

20.2.14 Production

454

(1)

20.2.15 Investors

455

(1)

20.2.16 Financial Institutions

455

(1)

20.2.17 Corporate Partners

455

(1)

20.2.18 Competitors

456

(1)

20.3 Norian Corporation

456

(6)

20.3.1 Overview

456

(1)

20.3.2 Seed Phase (1987-1989)

456

(2)

20.3.3 Developmental Phase (1990-1991)

458

(1)

20.3.4 Clinical Validation Phase (1993-1994)

459

(1)

20.3.5 Commercialization (1995-date)

460

(1)

20.3.6 Adoption (1996-date)

461

(1)

20.4 Conclusion

462

(1)

Reference

463

(2)

Chapter 21 The Road to Infinitesimal

465

(6)

Ralph S. Greco

Index

471

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Nanoscale Technology in Biological Systems

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Nanoscale Technology in Biological Systems

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