The Nature of Cognition
, by Robert J. Sternberg (Ed.)
- ISBN: 9780262692120 | 0262692120
- Cover: Paperback
- Copyright: 2/19/1999
This book is the first to introduce the study of cognition in terms of the major conceptual themes that underlie virtually all the substantive topics.
| Preface | |
| References | |
| General Issues In Cognition | |
| What Is a Theory of Thought? | |
| Revolutions Old and New | |
| The Philosophy behind Psychology: Are There Separate Laws for Mind and Body? | |
| Two Theories of Dualism | |
| Science Studies Systems | |
| Cognitive Psychology as the Study of Information-Processing Systems | |
| An Example | |
| A Computational View of Cognition | |
| Sublevels within the Computational System: The Black Box Problem in Engineering Terms | |
| Algorithm A | |
| Algorithm B | |
| Psycholinguistics as an Illustration of the Need for Different Levels of Psychological Theories | |
| Neuropsychological Studies of Language | |
| Computational Models of Language | |
| Language Use at the Representational Level | |
| A Summary of the Three Levels of Cognitive Theories | |
| Arguments against the Three-Level Approach to Cognition | |
| Replacing Computational Concepts with Neuroscience Concepts | |
| The Situated Cognition Objection to the Three-Level View | |
| What Might Future Theories Look Like? | |
| Notes | |
| References | |
| A Dialectical Basis for Understanding the Study of Cognition | |
| The Dialectical Progression of Ideas | |
| A Brief Intellectual History: Western Antecedents of Psychology | |
| Ancient Classical Greece and Rome (600-300 B.C.) | |
| The Early Christian Era (A.D. 200-450) and the Middle Ages (A.D. 400-1300) | |
| The Renaissance (Rebirth) of Criticism (A.D. 1300s-1600s) and the Nascence (Birth) of Science | |
| Beginnings of the Modern Period (1600s-1800s) | |
| Descartes and Locke (1600s-1750) | |
| Mill and Kant (1750-1800) | |
| Merging of Philosophy and Physiology into Modern Psychology (1800s1900s) | |
| The Diverging Perspectives of Modern Psychology | |
| Structuralism, Functionalism, Pragmatism, and Associationism: Early Dialectics in Psychology | |
| Structuralism | |
| Functionalism: An Alternative to Structuralism | |
| Pragmatism: An Outgrowth of Functionalism | |
| Associationism: An Integrative Synthesis | |
| Twentieth-Century Perspectives on Psychology | |
| Origins of Behaviorism | |
| Behaviorism | |
| Watson's Groundwork | |
| Hull's Synthesis with Pavlovian Conditioning | |
| Skinner's Radicalism | |
| Gestalt Psychology | |
| Cognitivism | |
| Acknowledgments | |
| References | |
| Rationalism versus Empiricism in Cognition | |
| A Word about Words | |
| Framing the Issues | |
| Nominalism, Realism, and the Problem of Universals | |
| Empiricism, Materialism, and Skepticism | |
| "Essentialism" and Personal Identity | |
| Intuitionism and Rationalism: The Measured Reply | |
| The Kantian "a priori" | |
| Rationalism and Empiricism--Are There Implications for Cognitive Psychology? | |
| Notes | |
| References | |
| Representation And Process In Cognition | |
| Single-Code versus Multiple-Code Theories in Cognition | |
| The Nature of Knowledge Representations | |
| What Are Mental Representations? | |
| Are Mental Representations Necessary? | |
| Single-Code versus Multiple-Code Theories of Knowledge Representation | |
| Single-Code Theories | |
| Multiple-Code Theories | |
| The Imagery Debate | |
| Summary and Conclusions | |
| References | |
| Domain-Generality versus Domain-Specificity in Cognition | |
| Domain-Generality versus Domain-Specificity: Navigating through the Theoretical Morass | |
| What Are DG-DS Debates All About? | |
| Classifying Constraints | |
| Low-Level versus High-Level Constraints | |
| Internal versus External Constraints | |
| Process versus Structure Constraints | |
| Static versus Dynamic Constraints | |
| Innate versus Acquired Constraints | |
| The Consequences of Contrasting Constraint Dimensions | |
| Summary | |
| Domain-Generality versus Domain-Specificity: Two Debates | |
| The Nature of Expertise | |
| Summary | |
| Human Development | |
| Emphasis on Domain-Specific Innate Constraints | |
| Emphasis on Domain-General Innate Constraints | |
| Emphasis on Domain-Specific Acquired Constraints | |
| Emphasis on Domain-General Acquired Constraints | |
| Summary | |
| General Comments on the Debates | |
| Conclusions | |
| Notes | |
| References | |
| Conscious versus Unconscious Cognition | |
| Conscious and Unconscious Cognition | |
| Automatic versus Controlled Processing | |
| Intentionality and Cognitive Resources | |
| Toward a Psychology of Zombies? | |
| Implicit versus Explicit Memory | |
| Taxonomy of Memory Tasks | |
| Theories of Implicit Memory | |
| Extensions of the Explicit-Implicit Distinction to Other Cognitive Domains | |
| Explicit versus Implicit Perception | |
| Explicit versus Implicit Thought | |
| Unconscious Processes versus Nonconscious | |
| Acknowledgments | |
| Note | |
| References | |
| Prototype versus Exemplar Models in Cognition | |
| Introduction | |
| Preliminary Remarks | |
| Concepts and Categories | |
| Domains | |
| Models and Model Classes | |
| The Prototype versus Exemplar Distinction | |
| History | |
| Prototype Model | |
| Evidence for the Prototype View | |
| Problems with the Prototype View | |
| Exemplar Model | |
| Evidence for the Exemplar View | |
| Problems for the Exemplar View | |
| Final Comments on the Exemplar View | |
| Combining Exemplar and Prototype Models | |
| Empirical Evidence for a Combined View | |
| Combined Models | |
| Selective Attention in Exemplar Models | |
| Exemplar-Based | |
| Abstractions | |
| Rational Model | |
| Other Ways of Combining Prototype and Exemplar Information | |
| PDP Models of Categorization | |
| Different Category Levels | |
| Different Types of Categories | |
| Conclusions | |
| Use of Categories | |
| Prototype View | |
| Exemplar View | |
| Combined Views | |
| Specificity and Generality in Cognition | |
| Summary and Conclusions | |
| Acknowledgments | |
| References | |
| Methodology In Cognition | |
| Computational Modeling of High-Level Cognition versus Hypothesis Testing | |
| AI's Approach: An Example from Chess | |
| Human Chess Experts | |
| How Chess Programs Work | |
| Cognitive Architectures | |
| Symbolic architectures | |
| Production Systems | |
| An Example | |
| Connectionist Architectures | |
| Hybrid Models | |
| Sharpening Conceptual Issues: Cognitive Modules | |
| Computational Models of Higher-Level Processes | |
| The Capacity-Constrained Activation Theory | |
| Capacity Constraint | |
| A Model of Sentence Processing | |
| Modules Revisited | |
| Intelligent-Tutoring Systems | |
| Intelligent Tutoring versus Expert Systems | |
| ACT-R and Intelligent Tutoring | |
| Cognitive Lesioning | |
| Agrammatic Aphasia | |
| Individual Differences | |
| A Unified Theory of Cognition | |
| Twenty Questions | |
| SOAR | |
| Evaluating Models and Modeling | |
| Models: Computational versus Verbal | |
| Evaluating Computational Models | |
| Sensitivity Analysis | |
| Evaluating Modeling as an Approach | |
| Acknowledgments | |
| References | |
| Brain versus Behavioral Studies of Cognition | |
| Discovering the Organization of Cognition: The Search for Dissociations | |
| Techniques in Human Brain Research: Three Examples of Brain Research Informing Cognitive Psychology | |
| Lesion Studies | |
| Background and Technique | |
| Example: Identifying Memory Systems | |
| Advantages and Disadvantages of Lesion Studies in Humans | |
| Event-Related Potentials | |
| Background and Technique | |
| Example: Selective Attention | |
| Advantages and Disadvantages of ERP Studies | |
| Functional Neuroimaging | |
| Background and Technique | |
| Example: Mental Imagery | |
| Advantages and Disadvantages of Functional Neuroimaging | |
| Conclusions about Brain and Behavioral Studies of Cognition | |
| References | |
| Response Time versus Accuracy in Human Memory | |
| Accuracy and Interresponse Times in Free Recall | |
| Semantic Clustering | |
| Exponential Increase in IRTs | |
| Analysis of Memory under Conditions of High Accuracy | |
| RT and Accuracy in Implicit Sequence Learning and Explicit Sequence Prediction | |
| Accuracy and RT analysis of the Ranschburg Effect | |
| The Subspan Item-Recognition Task | |
| Task Analysis Using Accuracy and RT Data | |
| Complications Introduced by the Possibility of Speed-Accuracy Trade-offs | |
| Implications of Only Observing RTs | |
| Necessary Conditions for Safe Ordinal Conclusions | |
| Quantitative Interpretational Difficulties | |
| Equalizing Error Rates Is Still Not Enough | |
| An Important Caveat | |
| SAT Curves in the Study of Human Memory | |
| Criticisms of the SAT Approach and the Response Signal Procedure | |
| Performance Curves to Investigate Visual Information Acquisition | |
| An Example: Using Performance Curves to Investigate Effects of Priming | |
| Possibility-1 Prediction: Horizontally Parallel Curves | |
| Possibility-2 Prediction: Constant-Ratio Diverging Curves | |
| Models of RT Data in Human Memory | |
| Unidimensional Strength Theory of Recognition (or Signal Detection Theory) | |
| The Diffusion Model | |
| Connectionist Models | |
| Conclusions: Are Accuracy and RT Data Two Sides of the Same Coin? | |
| Notes | |
| References | |
| Laboratory versus Field Approaches to Cognition | |
| Context | |
| Cognition in and out of Context | |
| Physical Context | |
| Familiarity of Task | |
| Knowledge as a Context | |
| Social Context | |
| Socioemotional Context | |
| Considerations Regarding IQ and Transfer | |
| Conclusion | |
| Notes | |
| References | |
| Basic versus Applied Research | |
| Intellectual versus Practical Motivation in Mathematics | |
| The Interdependence of Science and Engineering | |
| The Fuzzy Line between Basic and Applied Research | |
| Practical and Theoretical Roots of Experimental Psychology | |
| How Research is Supported | |
| Personal Motivations for and Assessments of Research | |
| Why Do People Do Research? | |
| How Do Researchers Decide What Research to Do? | |
| How Should Researchers Decide What Research To Do? | |
| Societal Motivations for and Assessments of Research | |
| Justifying Research | |
| Judging the Value of Research Results | |
| Applied Experimental Psychology | |
| Opportunities for Cognitive Research with Both Theoretical and Practical Implications | |
| Recap | |
| References | |
| Kinds Of Cognition | |
| Inferential versus Ecological Approaches to Perception | |
| Inferential Approaches to Perception | |
| The Ecological Approach to Perception | |
| Concluding Remarks | |
| References | |
| Implicit versus Explicit Learning | |
| Some Philosophical Meanderings | |
| On the Necessity of Both Implicit and Explicit Systems | |
| Evolutionary Biology | |
| Developmental Considerations | |
| Neuroanatomical Considerations | |
| How Implicit Learning Is Studied | |
| Artificial Grammar Learning | |
| Serial Reaction Time | |
| The Core Issues | |
| On Awareness | |
| Representational Form, or What Is Being Learned in an Implicit-Learning Experiment | |
| Individual and Developmental Differences | |
| Neuropsychological Issues | |
| Role of Attention | |
| Implicit Motor Learning | |
| Formal Models of Implicit Learning | |
| Affect and Implicit Learning | |
| Summary | |
| Note | |
| References | |
| Multi-Store versus Dynamic Models of Temporary Storage in Memory | |
| Multi-Store Model | |
| Forgetting | |
| Transfer of Information to Long-Term Store | |
| Coding | |
| Neuropsychological Evidence | |
| Problems with the Multi-Store Model | |
| Working Memory | |
| Slave Systems | |
| Central Executive | |
| Other Approaches to Working Memory | |
| Working Memory Capacity and the Central Executive | |
| Measurement Issues with Working Memory | |
| Working Memory Capacity and the Frontal Lobes12 | |
| Conclusion | |
| Acknowledgments | |
| Notes | |
| References | |
| Rational versus Arational Models of Thought | |
| Forms of Rationality | |
| Limitations on the Assessment of Rationality | |
| Minimal Rationality | |
| The Value of Error | |
| Some Deviations from Ideal Rationality | |
| Reliance on Memory | |
| Reliance on Similarity | |
| Reliance on Positive Tests | |
| Why Do People Make Errors? | |
| Bounded Rationality | |
| Natural Assessment Methods | |
| Two Types of Thinking | |
| Rule-Based Thinking | |
| Associative Thinking | |
| Extensional Cues | |
| Probability versus Frequency | |
| Education | |
| Conclusions | |
| Acknowledgments | |
| Notes | |
| References | |
| Formal Rules versus Mental Models in Reasoning | |
| Background to the Controversy | |
| The Distinction between Syntax and Semantics | |
| Formal Rule Theories | |
| Evidence for Formal Rule Theories | |
| The Mental Model Theory | |
| Evidence for the Mental Model Theory | |
| One-Model Problems Are Easier than Multiple-Model Problems | |
| Systematic Errors Correspond to Initial Models of Premises | |
| Knowledge Influences the Process of Reasoning | |
| Truth and Fallacies in Reasoning | |
| Conclusions | |
| Note | |
| References | |
| Cognition versus Metacognition | |
| Prospective Monitoring | |
| Ease-of-Learning Judgments | |
| Judgments of Learning | |
| Feeling-of-Knowing Judgments | |
| Retrospective Confidence Judgments | |
| Source Monitoring and Reality Monitoring | |
| Metacognitive Control | |
| Control during Self-Paced Acquisition | |
| Allocation of Self-Paced Study during Acquisition | |
| Strategy Employed during Self-Paced Study | |
| Control during Retrieval | |
| Control of Initiating One's Retrieval | |
| Control of the Termination of Extended Attempts at Retrieval | |
| Neuropsychological Correlates of Metacognition | |
| Neuropsychological Patients | |
| Normal Subjects in Extreme Environments | |
| Consciousness and Metacognition | |
| Acknowledgments | |
| References | |
| Group And Individual Differences In Cognition | |
| Culture-Free versus Culture-Based Measures of Cognition | |
| Nineteenth-Century Beliefs about Culture and Cognitive Ability | |
| Enter Psychology | |
| Enter Testing | |
| Binet's Strategy | |
| A Thought Experiment in Test Construction | |
| Some Implications for the Notion of a Culture-Free Test | |
| References | |
| Heredity versus Environment as the Basis of Cognitive Ability | |
| Behavior-Genetic Approach to Studying Individual Differences | |
| The Concept of Individual Differences | |
| Genes versus Environment: The Paradigm | |
| Definition of Terms | |
| Phenotype | |
| Genotype | |
| Causal Components of the Phenotypic Variance1 | |
| Familial Resemblance | |
| The Forces in Play | |
| Genetic Influences (G): Types and Effects | |
| Additive Genetic Effects | |
| Nonadditive Genetic Effects | |
| Environmental Influences (E): Types and Effects | |
| Shared Environmental Effects | |
| Nonshared Environmental Effects | |
| When the Two Are Brought Together: Gene-Environment Effects (G Ãù E) | |
| Gene-Environment Correlations | |
| Genotype Ãù Environment Interaction | |
| Assortative Mating | |
| Major Concepts Utilized in Behavior-Genetic Research | |
| What Heritability and Environmentality Are ... | |
| Heritability | |
| Environmentality | |
| ... And What They Are Not | |
| Heritability and Environmentality Are Estimated Variance Components, Not Measured Effects | |
| Heritability and Environmentality Are Not Constants, and Their Estimates Are Not Precise | |
| Heritability and Environmentality Apply to a Population, Not to One Individual | |
| Heritability and Environmentality Do Not Say Much about Means | |
| Heritability and Environmentality Do Not Refer to Modification and Intervention | |
| What Do We Know about Causes of Variation in Various Cognitive Abilities? | |
| What Have We Learned about Heritability of General Cognitive Ability (IQ)? | |
| Family Studies | |
| Twin Studies | |
| Adoption/Separation Studies | |
| Summary Comments | |
| What Have We Learned about Heritability of Specific Cognitive Abilities? | |
| Concluding Remarks | |
| Note | |
| References | |
| Contributors | |
| Author Index | |
| Subject Index | |
| Table of Contents provided by Publisher. All Rights Reserved. |
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