Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy

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ISBN: 9783540431176 | 3540431179
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 10/1/2002

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Since 1995, the noncontact atomic force microscope (NC-AFM) has achieved remarkable progress. Based on nanomechanical methods, the NC-AFM detects the weak attractive force between the tip of a cantilever and a sample surface. This method has the following characteristics: it has true atomic resolution; it can measure atomic force interactions, i.e. it can be used in so-called atomic force spectroscopy (AFS); it can also be used to study insulators; and it can measure mechanical responses such as elastic deformation. This is the first book that deals with all of the emerging NC-AFM issues.

Introduction

(10)

Seizo Morita

AFM in Retrospective

(3)

Present Status of NC-AFM

(4)

Future Prospects for NC-AFM

(3)

References

(1)

Principle of NC-AFM

(36)

Franz J. Giessibl

Basics

(9)

Relation to the Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)

(4)

Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)

(3)

Operating Modes of AFMs

(2)

Scanning Speed, Signal Bandwidth and Noise

(1)

The Four Additional Challenges Faced by AFM

(2)

Jump-to-Contact and Other Instabilities

(1)

Contribution of Long-Range Forces

(1)

Noise in the Imaging Signal

(1)

Non-Monotonic Imaging Signal

(1)

Frequency-Modulation AFM (FM-AFM)

(7)

Experimental Setup

(4)

Applications

(3)

Relation between Frequency Shift and Forces

(5)

Generic Calculation

(3)

Frequency Shift for a Typical Tip--Sample Force

(1)

Calculation of the Tunneling Current for Oscillating Tips

(1)

Noise in Frequency-Modulation AFM

(5)

Generic Calculation

(1)

Noise in the Frequency Measurement

(4)

Optimal Amplitude for Minimal Vertical Noise

(1)

A Novel Force Sensor Based on a Quartz Tuning Fork

(2)

Quartz Versus Silicon as a Cantilever Material

(1)

Benefits in Clamping One of the Beams (qPlus Configuration)

(1)

Conclusion and Outlook

(6)

References

(4)

Semiconductor Surfaces

(32)

Seizo Morita

Yasuhiro Sugawara

Instrumentation

(1)

Three-Dimensional Mapping of Atomic Force

(4)

Control of Atomic Force

(3)

Imaging Mechanisms for Si(100)2x1 and Si(100)2x1:H

(3)

Surface Strain on an Atomic Scale

(2)

Low Temperature Image of Si(100) Clean Surface

(1)

Mechanical Control of Atom Position

(4)

Atom Identification Using Covalent Bonding Force

(3)

Charge Imaging with Atomic Resolution

(6)

Mechanical Atom Manipulation

(5)

References

(3)

Bias Dependence of NC-AFM Images and Tunneling Current Variations on Semiconductor Surfaces

(14)

Toyoko Arai

Masahiko Tomitori

Experimental Conditions

(1)

Bias Dependence of NC-AFM Images for Si(111)7x7

(8)

Mechanism of Inverted Atomic Corrugation

(3)

NC-AFM Imaging and Tunneling Current

(4)

NC-AFM Images for Ge/Si(111)

(3)

Concluding Remarks

(2)

References

(1)

Alkali Halides

(16)

Roland Bennewitz

Martin Bammerlin

Ernst Meyer

Introduction

(2)

Experimental Techniques

(1)

Relevant Forces

(1)

Imaging of Single Crystals

(3)

Sample Preparation

(1)

Atomic Corrugation

(1)

Imaging of Defects

(1)

Mixed Alkali Halide Crystals

(1)

Imaging of Thin Films

(3)

Preparation of Thin Films

(1)

Atomic Resolution at Low-Coordinated Sites

100

(1)

Radiation Damage

101

(2)

Metallization and Bubble Formation in CaF2

101

(1)

Monatomic Pits in KBr

102

(1)

Dissipation Measurements

103

(6)

Material and Site-Specific Contrast

104

(1)

Using Damping for Distance Control

105

(1)

References

106

(3)

Atomic Resolution Imaging on Fluorides

109

(16)

Michael Reichling

Clemens Barth

Experimental Techniques

110

(1)

Tip Instabilities

111

(4)

Flat Surfaces

115

(4)

Step Edges

119

(6)

References

122

(3)

Atomically Resolved Imaging of a NiO(001) Surface

125

(10)

Hirotaka Hosoi

Kazuhisa Sueoka

Kazunobu Hayakawa

Koichi Mukasa

Antiferromagnetic Nickel Oxide

125

(2)

Experimental Considerations

127

(1)

Morphology of the Cleaved Surface

128

(1)

Atomically Resolved Imaging Using Non-Coated and Fe-Coated Si Tips

129

(1)

Short-Range Magnetic Interaction

130

(1)

Analysis of the Cross-Section

131

(2)

Conclusion

133

(2)

References

134

(1)

Atomic Structure, Order and Disorder on High Temperature Reconstructed α-Al2O3(0001)

135

(12)

Clemens Barth

Michael Reichling

The Clean Surface

137

(2)

Defect Formation upon Water Exposure

139

(2)

Self-Organized Formation of Nanoclusters

141

(6)

References

143

(4)

NC-AFM Imaging of Surface Reconstructions and Metal Growth on Oxides

147

(20)

Chi Lun Pang

Geoff Thornton

Introduction

147

(1)

1x1 to 1x3 Phase Transition of TiO2(100)

148

(3)

Surface Reconstructions of TiO2(110)

151

(3)

The 1x2 Reconstruction of SnO2(110)

154

(1)

Imaging Thin Film Alumina: NiAl(110)-Al2O3

155

(3)

Growth of Cu and Pd on α-Al2O3(0001)-√31 x √31R±9°

158

(2)

A Short-Range-Ordered Overlayer of K on TiO2(110)

160

(2)

Conclusions

162

(5)

References

163

(4)

Atoms and Molecules on TiO2(110) and CeO2(111) Surfaces

167

(16)

Ken-ichi Fukui

Yasuhiro Iwasawa

Background

167

(1)

Brief Description of Experiments

168

(1)

Surface Structures of TiO2(110)

169

(1)

Adsorbed Atoms and Molecules on TiO2(110)

170

(3)

Carboxylate Ions on TiO2(110)

170

(2)

Hydrogen Adatoms on TiO2(110)

172

(1)

Fluctuation of Acetate Ions on TiO2(110)

173

(2)

Surface Structures of CeO2(111)

175

(3)

Conclusions

178

(5)

References

179

(4)

NC-AFM Imaging of Adsorbed Molecules

183

(10)

Yasuhiro Sugawara

Nucleic Acid Bases on a Graphite Surface

183

(4)

Double-Stranded DNA on a Mica Surface

187

(2)

Alkanethiol on a Au(111) Surface

189

(4)

References

191

(2)

Organic Molecular Films

193

(22)

Hirofumi Yamada

AFM Imaging of Molecular Films

194

(10)

Fullerenes

195

(3)

Alkanethiol SAMs

198

(2)

Ferroelectric Molecular Films

200

(4)

Surface Potential Measurements

204

(5)

Technical Developments in NC-AFM Imaging of Molecules

209

(2)

Concluding Remarks

211

(4)

References

212

(3)

Single-Molecule Analysis

215

(18)

Akira Sasahara

Hiroshi Onishi

Introduction

215

(1)

Molecules and Surface

216

(1)

Experimental Methods

217

(1)

Alkyl-Substituted Carboxylates

218

(3)

Numerical Simulation of Propiolate Topography

221

(5)

Sphere--Substrate Force

223

(1)

Sphere--Carboxylate Force

223

(1)

Cluster--Substrate Force

224

(1)

Cluster--Carboxylate Force

224

(1)

Simulated Topography

224

(2)

Fluorine-Substituted Acetates

226

(3)

Conclusions and Perspectives

229

(4)

References

230

(3)

Low-Temperature Measurements: Principles, Instrumentation, and Application

233

(24)

Wolf Allers

Alexander Schwarz

Udo D. Schwarz

Introduction

233

(1)

Microscope Operation at Low Temperatures

234

(3)

Drift

234

(2)

Noise

236

(1)

Instrumentation

237

(2)

Van der Waals Surfaces

239

(3)

HOPG(0001)

240

(1)

Xenon

241

(1)

Nickel Oxide

242

(2)

Semiconductors

244

(5)

Δf(z) Curves on Specific Atomic Sites

244

(2)

Tip-Dependent Atomic Scale Contrast

246

(2)

Tip-Induced Relaxation

248

(1)

Magnetic Force Microscopy at Low Temperatures

249

(3)

MFM Data Acquisition

249

(1)

Domain Structure of La0.7Ca0.3MnO3--δ

250

(1)

Vortices on YBa2Cu3O7--δ

251

(1)

Conclusions

252

(5)

References

253

(4)

Theory of Non-Contact Atomic Force Microscopy

257

(22)

Masaru Tsukada

Naruo Sasaki

Michel Gauthier

Katsunori Tagami

Satoshi Watanabe

Introduction

257

(2)

Cantilever Dynamics

259

(3)

Theoretical Simulation of NC-AFM Images

262

(5)

Non-Contact Atomic Force Microscopy Images of Dynamic Surfaces

267

(3)

Effect of Tip on Image for the Si(100)2x1:H Surface

270

(4)

Effect of Tip on Surface Structure Change and its Relation to Dissipation

274

(3)

Conclusion and Outlook

277

(2)

References

278

(1)

Chemical Interaction in NC-AFM on Semiconductor Surfaces

279

(26)

San-Huang Ke

Tsuyoshi Uda

Kiyoyuki Terakura

Ruben Perez

Ivan Stich

Introduction

279

(1)

First-Principles Calculation of Tip--Surface Chemical Interaction

280

(1)

Simulation of NC-AFM Images

281

(3)

Simulations on Various Surfaces

284

(2)

Tip-Induced Surface Relaxation on the GaAs(110) Surface

286

(7)

Vertical Scan Over an As Atom

286

(2)

Vertical Scan Over a Ga Atom

288

(3)

Relevance to Near-Contact STM Observations

291

(2)

Tip-Induced Surface Atomic Processes and Energy Dissipation in NC-AFM

293

(1)

Image Contrast on GaAs(110) for a Pure Si Tip: Distance Dependence

293

(4)

Effect of Tip Morphology on NC-AFM Images

297

(5)

Image Contrast for the Ga/Si Tip

299

(2)

Image Contrast for the As/Si Tip

301

(1)

Conclusion

302

(3)

References

303

(2)

Contrast Mechanisms on Insulating Surfaces

305

(44)

Adam Foster

Alexander Shluger

Clemens Barth

Michael Reichling

Introduction

305

(1)

Model of AFM and Main Forces

306

(7)

Tip--Surface Setup

306

(1)

Forces

307

(6)

Simulating Scanning

313

(7)

The Surface

313

(1)

The Tip

314

(3)

Tip--Surface Interaction

317

(2)

Modelling Oscillations

319

(1)

Generating a Theoretical Surface Image

320

(1)

Applications

320

(21)

The Calcium Fluoride (111) Surface

322

(14)

Calcite: Surface Deformations During Scanning

336

(5)

Studying Surface and Defect Properties

341

(2)

Conclusions

343

(6)

References

344

(5)

Analysis of Microscopy and Spectroscopy Experiments

349

(22)

Hendrik Holscher

Introduction

349

(1)

Basic Principles

349

(6)

Experimental Setup

349

(2)

Origin of the Frequency Shift

351

(1)

Calculation of the Frequency Shift

352

(2)

Frequency Shift for Conservative Tip--Sample Forces

354

(1)

Simulation of NC-AFM Images

355

(7)

Experimental NC-AFM Images of van der Waals Surfaces

355

(3)

Basic Principles of the Simulation Method

358

(2)

Applications of the Simulation Method

360

(2)

Dynamic Force Spectroscopy

362

(5)

Determining Forces from Frequencies

362

(4)

Analysis of Tip--Sample Interaction Forces

366

(1)

Conclusion

367

(4)

References

368

(3)

Theory of Energy Dissipation into Surface Vibrations

371

(24)

Michel Gauthier

Lev Kantorovich

Masaru Tsukada

Introduction

371

(1)

Possible Dissipation Mechanisms

372

(3)

Adhesion Hysteresis

372

(3)

Stochastic Dissipation

375

(1)

Other Mechanisms

375

(1)

Brownian Particle Mechanism of Energy Dissipation

375

(7)

Brownian Particle

375

(2)

Fluctuation--Dissipation Theorem

377

(1)

Oscillating Tip as a Brownian Particle

378

(2)

Energy Dissipated Per Oscillation Cycle

380

(2)

Nonequilibrium Considerations for NC-AFM Systems

382

(6)

Preliminary Remarks

382

(1)

Mixed Quantum--Classical Representation

383

(2)

Equation of Motion for the Tip

385

(3)

Estimation of Dissipation Energies in NC-AFM

388

(3)

Comparison with STM

391

(1)

Conclusions and Future Directions

392

(3)

References

393

(2)

Measurement of Dissipation Induced by Tip--Sample Interactions

395

(38)

H.J. Hug

A. Baratoff

Introduction

395

(1)

Experimental Aspects of Energy Dissipation

396

(2)

Experimental Methods

398

(1)

Apparent Energy Dissipation

399

(5)

Velocity-Dependent Dissipation

404

(9)

Electric-Field-Mediated Joule Dissipation

405

(3)

Magnetic-Field-Mediated Joule Dissipation

408

(1)

Magnetic-Field-Mediated Dissipation

409

(3)

Brownian Dissipation

412

(1)

Hysteresis-Related Dissipation

413

(6)

Magnetic-Field-Induced Hysteresis

413

(2)

Hysteresis Due to Adhesion

415

(1)

Hysteresis Due to Atomic Instabilities

416

(3)

Dissipation Imaging with Atomic Resolution

419

(7)

Dissipation Spectroscopy

426

(3)

Conclusion

429

(4)

References

429

(4)

Index

433

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Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy

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Table of Contents

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