Omega-3 Fatty Acids and the DHA Principle

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ISBN: 9781439812990 | 1439812993
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 12/3/2009

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The physical-chemical properties of the omega-3 fatty acid DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) enable it to facilitate biochemical processes in the membrane. This effect has numerous benefits, including those involved in the growth of bacteria, rapid energy generation, human vision, brain impulse, and photosynthesis, to name a few. Yet DHA also carries risks that can lead to cellular death and disease. Omega-3 Fatty Acids and the DHA Principle explores the roles of omega-3 fatty acids in cellular membranes ranging from human neurons and swimming sperm to deep sea bacteria, and develops a principle by which to assess their benefits and risks.

Preface	p. xv
Acknowledgments	p. xvii
The Authors	p. xix
Introduction
Molecular Biology of Omega-3 Chains as Structural Lipids: Many Central Questions Remain Unanswered	p. 3
Membrane Lipids: Contribution to Ecology	p. 6
Extraordinary Conformational Dynamics of DHA Predicts Extraordinary Functions and Vice Versa	p. 8
Reductionist Strategy for DHA Research	p. 10
Selected Bibliography	p. 12
Evolution of DHA and the Membrane
Darwinian Selection of the Fittest Membrane Lipids: From Archaeal Isoprenoids to DHA-Enriched Rhodopsin Disks	p. 17
Bioenergetics as the Driver of Evolution of Lipid Structures	p. 19
Do Archaea Have an Achilles' Heel?	p. 21
DHA Drives Motion to New Speeds: Evolution of Membranes for Vision	p. 24
Summary	p. 27
Selected Bibliography	p. 28
Coevolution of DHA Membranes and Their Proteins	p. 31
Did Motion or Lack of Motion Prevail in Membranes of ProtoCells?	p. 31
Which Came First-Proteins or Membranes?	p. 32
Ionophores Behave as Primitive Transporters and Some Depend on the Physical State of the Membrane	p. 33
Many Archaeal Membrane Proteins Are Laterally Immobile, but Some Can Spin	p. 36
Sensory Perception Requires Membrane Lateral Motion	p. 38
Does Rhodopsin Move Faster in a DHA (22:6) versus DPA (22:5) Bilayer?	p. 39
DHA Phospholipids Liberate Membrane Enzymes/ Substrates Trapped in Lipid Rafts	p. 40
Have Some Membrane-Bound Enzymes Evolved Dependence on a Fluid Lipid Environment for Biocatalysis?	p. 40
Phospholipid-Dependent Enzymes	p. 41
DHA as a Space-Filling Sealant around Membrane Proteins	p. 41
Summary	p. 43
Selected Bibliography	p. 44
Convergent Evolution of DHA/EPA Biosynthetic Pathways	p. 47
Domain Analysis of DHA/EPA Gene Clusters	p. 48
The PKS Pathway	p. 50
Mechanism of Specificity	p. 52
Summary	p. 53
Selected Bibliography	p. 54
Membrane Evolution in a Marine Bacterium: Capitalizing on DHA for Energy Conservation in Seawater	p. 55
Energy Limitation Plagues the Life of a Deep-Sea Bacterium	p. 55
Moritella Has Evolved Powerful Na+ Efflux Pumps	p. 57
DHA/EPA Synthesis is Osmoregulated	p. 60
DHA Conformational Dynamics Fit to Functions Needed in the Deep Sea	p. 62
Summary	p. 65
Selected Bibliography	p. 66
Evolution of DHA Membranes in Human Neurons	p. 69
DHA May Reduce Na+ Leakage into Neurons	p. 71
Do DHA Plasmalogens Shield Cations?	p. 73
Importance of Motion	p. 74
Case Histories	p. 74
Summary	p. 79
Selected Bibliography	p. 79
General Properties of Omega-3s and Other Membrane Lipids
DHA/EPA Chains as Powerful Membrane Antifreeze	p. 83
Survey of Phospholipids Based on Phase Transition Temperatures	p. 85
Ecological Distribution of Phospholipids with Ultralow Phase Transition Temperatures	p. 86
Calibrating the Fluidizing Power of Fatty Acids	p. 87
Seeding Model of DHA in Disrupting Lipid Rafts	p. 91
Summary	p. 92
Selected Bibliography	p. 92
DHA as a Mediocre Permeability Barrier against Cations: Water Wire Theory	p. 95
A Membrane-Spanning Nanotube Formed by an Antibiotic Creates a Molecular Thread of Water That Conducts Protons at Amazing Rates	p. 96
Water Wires Likely Form Spontaneously in Membranes	p. 98
DHA and Water Wires	p. 100
Fatty Acid Bulking for "Plugging the Proton Dike"	p. 101
Summary	p. 105
Selected Bibliography	p. 106
DHA/EPA Membranes as Targets of Oxidative Damage	p. 107
Brief Chemistry of Lipoxidation of DHA/EPA Membranes	p. 108
DHA Might Be Toxic to E. coli	p. 111
Growth of EPA Recombinants of E. coli Indicates O2 Toxicity in Vivo	p. 112
Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) Synthesizes Only Monounsaturated Chains and Feeding These Cells Polyunsaturated Chains Can Be Toxic	p. 113
C. elegans Produces EPA and Seeks or Creates Low O2 Environments	p. 113
Birds	p. 114
Humans: Rhodopsin Disk Membranes are Highly Enriched with DHA, Oxidize Rapidly, and Require Continuous Renewal	p. 115
Summary	p. 116
Selected Bibliography	p. 117
Cellular Biology of Omega-3s and Other Membrane Lipids
Bacteria: Environmental Modulation of Membrane Lipids for Bioenergetic Gain	p. 121
Methyl-Branched Fatty Acids as Membrane Bulking Agents	p. 122
Trans Fatty Acids Play Multiple Beneficial Roles	p. 123
Cis-Vaccenic Acid Conformation Enables Energy-Transducing Membranes Dependent on Cholesterol-Like Molecules	p. 126
Bacteria Might Produce Plasmalogens as H+/Na+ Blockers	p. 130
DHA as a Virulence Factor in a Fish Pathogen?	p. 132
Summary	p. 133
Selected Bibliography	p. 134
Chloroplasts: Harnessing DHA/EPA for Harvesting Light in the Sea	p. 135
Long-Distance Electron Transport as a Rate-Limiting Step in Photosynthesis	p. 138
Speeding up Long-Distance Electron Transport	p. 139
A Delicate Balancing Act between Proton Permeability, Motion, and Oxidative Stability	p. 142
Summary	p. 143
Selected Bibliography	p. 143
Mitochondria: DHA-Cardiolipin Boosts Energy Output	p. 145
Making a Case for DHA-Cardiolipin in Fast Muscles	p. 145
Possible Biochemical Roles of DHA Cardiolipin	p. 148
Cardiolipin Case Histories	p. 150
Natural Doping with DHA/EPA for Endurance Flight	p. 153
Summary	p. 154
Selected Bibliography	p. 156
Sperm: Essential Roles of DHA Lead to Development of a Mechanical Stress Hypothesis	p. 157
Surprise Number One: DHA Is Localized in Tail Membranes	p. 158
Surprise Number Two: Low O2 Levels in the Female Reproductive Tract Protect DHA from Oxidation	p. 160
Surprise Number Three: Motion is Energized by Sugar, a Weak Energy Source, Rather than Mitochondria	p. 161
Surprise Number Four: Sperm Tail Membranes Are Excitatory in Nature and Must Expend Considerable Energy for Maintaining Na+/K+ Balance	p. 161
Surprise Number Five: Dynamic Space-Filling Conformation of DHA	p. 162
Surprise Number Six: Lessons from Sperm Applied to Neurosensory Cilia and Other Mechano-Sensitive Membranes	p. 164
Surprise Number Seven: Gender Determination Influenced by Diet?	p. 166
Summary	p. 167
Selected Bibliography	p. 168
Lessons and Applications
DHA/EPA Mutualism between Bacteria and Marine Animals	p. 171
Gastrointestinal Tract of Fish is a Suitable Habitat for DHA/EPA Mutualism	p. 171
DHA/EPA-Producing Bacteria Inhabit the Intestinal Tracts of Certain Marine Fish and Mollusks	p. 175
Mechanisms for Release of DHA/EPA to Benefit the Host	p. 176
Summary	p. 179
Selected Bibliography	p. 179
Membrane Adaptations for an Oily Environment: Lessons from a Petroleum-Degrading Bacterium	p. 181
Genomic Analysis Reveals that Na+ Bioenergetics Evolved as a Mechanism to Marginalize Proton Leakage Caused by Petroleum	p. 182
Outef Membrane (OM) Lipid Structure as a Physical Barrier against Oil	p. 185
Other Changes	p. 186
Ecological Support	p. 186
Summary	p. 187
Selected Bibliography	p. 188
Lessons from Yeast: Phospholipid Conformations are Important in Winemaking	p. 189
Discovery and Roles of Asymmetrical Phospholipids in Yeast	p. 189
Membrane Alterations Accompanying Fermentation	p. 191
Energy Uncoupling in the Plasma Membrane of Yeast is Advantageous in Nature	p. 191
Water Wire Theory Can Explain Uncoupling in Yeast	p. 192
Summary	p. 194
Selected Bibliography	p. 194
DHA Principle Applied to Global Warming	p. 197
Marine Productivity is Threatened by Even Modest Thermal Upshocks	p. 197
Highly Unsaturated Membranes of Symbiotic Algae of Corals Have Already Been Implicated as "Reporters" of Global Warming	p. 199
Thermal Killing of DHA-Producing Bacteria as a Surrogate for Marine Chloroplasts	p. 200
Conformational Model	p. 202
DHA/EPA Are Needed to Build Efficient Neurosensory Membranes in Zooplankton and Other Marine Animals	p. 204
Summary	p. 206
Selected Bibliography	p. 207
DHA Principle Applied to Molecular Farming	p. 209
Asilomar Conference in 1975 on Recombinant DNA Ushered in the Era of Genetically Engineered Crop Plants	p. 210
DHA is Currently Produced from Marine Algae, but Crop Plants Are Being Considered	p. 211
DHA Produced by Land Plants is Predicted to Be Its Own Worst Enemy	p. 212
Photo-Protection Might Be Needed	p. 214
Summary	p. 216
Selected Bibliography	p. 217
DHA/Unsaturation Theory of Aging	p. 219
DHA Content Predicts Long Life Span of Naked Mole Rats and Short Life of Mice	p. 219
Unsaturation Theory Applied to Insects	p. 222
Lipoxidation Mechanisms	p. 222
Lipoxidation Products Might Directly Uncouple Cation Gradients in Mitochondria and Create Energy Stress	p. 223
Integrating Energy Stress Caused by the Plasma Membrane into the Aging Cascade(s)	p. 224
Summary	p. 225
Selected Bibliography	p. 226
DHA Principle Applied to Neurodegenerative Diseases	p. 227
DHA as a Risk Factor in Aging Neurons	p. 227
Drop in DHA Levels as a Disease Marker and Relationship to Energy Stress	p. 231
Toxic Peptides as Energy Uncouplers?	p. 233
Consideration of Neurodegenerative Diseases as Membrane Diseases	p. 235
Summary	p. 237
Selected Bibliography	p. 238
Dietary DHA in Prevention of Colon Cancer: How a Risk to the Cell Benefits the Organism	p. 241
Nature of Colon Cancer	p. 241
Dietary DHA Targeted to Mitochondrial Cardiolipin of Colon Cells	p. 243
Oxidation of DHA Cardiolipin as a Trigger of Apoptosis	p. 244
Summary	p. 245
Selected Bibliography	p. 245
Index	p. 247
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Omega-3 Fatty Acids and the DHA Principle

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