Optical Refrigeration Science and

Edited by the two top experts in the field with a panel of International contributors, this is a comprehensive up-to-date review of research and applications. Starting with the basic physical principles of laser cooling of solids, the monograph goes on to discuss the current theoretical issues being resolved and the increasing demands of growth and evaluation of high purity materials suitable for optical refrigeration, while also examining the design and applications of practical cryocoolers. An advanced text for scientists, researchers, engineers, and students (masters, PHDs and Postdoc) in laser and optical material science, and cryogenics.

Richard I. Epstein is a Laboratory Fellow at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) in New Mexico. He was an undergraduate in Engineering Physics at Cornell University and received his Ph.D. in Applied Physics from Stanford University. He then did research at the University of Texas at Austin, Harvard University and Nordita in Copenhagen, before taking his present position. He has published over 150 papers in theoretical astrophysics, satellite instrumentation and applied physics. He leads the effort in laser cooling of solids at LANL. He is a fellow of Optical Society of America.

Mansoor Sheik-Bahae is a professor of Physics and Astronomy and the chair of Optical Science and Engineering at the University of New Mexico (UNM), Albuquerque NM (USA). He graduated from the State University of New York (Buffalo), and subsequently spent 7 years as a research scientist at CREOL-University of Central Florida before joining UNM in 1994 where he currently heads the Consortium for Laser Cooling of Solids. Professor Sheik-Bahae has authored more than 200 scientific papers in nonlinear optics, ultrafast phenomena and solid-state laser cooling, with more than 4000 citations to his work. He is a fellow of Optical Society of America.

Preface	p. IX
Optical Refrigeration in Solids: Fundamentals and Overview	p. 1
Basic Concepts	p. 1
The Four-Level Model for Optical Refrigeration	p. 4
Cooling Rare-Earth-Doped Solids	p. 7
Prospects for Laser Cooling in Semiconductors	p. 12
Experimental Work on Optical Refrigeration in Semiconductors	p. 21
Future Outlook	p. 26
References	p. 28
Design and Fabrication of Rare-Earth-Doped Laser Cooling Materials	p. 33
History of Laser Cooling Materials	p. 33
Material Design Considerations	p. 36
Active Ions	p. 37
Rare-Earth Ions for Laser Cooling	p. 37
Active Ion Concentration	p. 39
Host Materials	p. 40
Multiphonon Relaxation	p. 40
Chemical Durability	p. 42
Thermal and Thermomechanical Properties	p. 42
Refractive Index	p. 43
Material Purity	p. 45
Vibrational Impurities	p. 45
Metal-Ion Impurities	p. 46
Preparation of High-Purity Precursors	p. 48
Strategies for Preparing High-Purity Precursors	p. 48
Process Conditions	p. 50
Purity of Commercial Precursors	p. 50
Process Equipment	p. 50
Clean Environment	p. 51
Material Purification	p. 51
Filtration and Recrystallization	p. 51
Solvent Extraction Using Chelating Agents	p. 52
Fluorination and Drying in Hydrogen Fluoride Gas	p. 54
Sublimation and Distillation	p. 55
Electrochemical Purification	p. 57
Determination of Trace Impurity Levels	p. 57
Glass Fabrication	p. 59
Glass Formation in ZrF₄ Systems	p. 59
ZBLAN Glass Fabrication	p. 62
Melting of the Starting Materials	p. 62
Evaporative Losses	p. 63
Dissolution and Homogenization	p. 63
Optimum Rate of Cooling	p. 63
Viscosity for Casting	p. 64
Typical Glass Fabrication Parameters	p. 64
Fluoride, Chloride, and Sulfide Glass Fabrication	p. 65
Halide Crystal Growth	p. 65
Promising Future Materials	p. 66
Simplified Fluoride Glasses	p. 67
Fluoride Crystals	p. 67
Chloride and Bromide Crystals	p. 68
References	p. 68
Laser Cooling in Fluoride Single Crystals	p. 75
Introduction	p. 75
Physical Properties	p. 77
Experimental	p. 78
Growth Apparatus	p. 78
Spectroscopic Setup	p. 80
Cooling Setup	p. 81
Spectroscopic Analysis	p. 83
Cooling Results	p. 87
Cooling Potential	p. 87
Bulk Cooling	p. 89
Conclusion	p. 93
References	p. 94
Er³⁺-Doped Materials for Solid-State Cooling	p. 97
Low Phonon Energy Materials	p. 97
KPb₂Cl₅ Crystal	p. 98
Fluorochloride Glasses	p. 101
Internal Cooling Measurements	p. 101
Bulk Cooling Measurements	p. 105
Influence of Upconversion Processes on the Cooling Efficiency of Er³⁺	p. 108
Spectroscopic Grounds: Upconversion Properties of Er³⁺ Under Pumping in the ⁴I_9/2 Manifold	p. 108
A Phenomenological Cooling Model Including Upconversion	p. 111
References	p. 114
Laser Refrigerator Design and Applications	p. 117
Introduction	p. 117
Modeling	p. 119
Modeling Results	p. 121
Design Issues	p. 124
Mirror Heating	p. 129
Applications	p. 133
Comparison to Other Refrigeration Technologies	p. 133
Vibration	p. 133
Electromagnetic and Magnetic Noise	p. 134
Reliability and Lifetime	p. 134
Ruggedness	p. 134
Cryocooler Mass and Volume	p. 134
Efficiency and System Mass	p. 134
Cost	p. 136
Microcooling Applications	p. 136
References	p. 138
Microscopic Theory of Luminescence and its Application to the Optical Refrigeration of Semiconductors	p. 139
Introduction	p. 139
Microscopic Theory of Absorption and Luminescence	p. 141
Cooling Theory	p. 151
Cooling of Bulk GaAs	p. 153
Cooling of GaAs Quantum Wells	p. 159
Cooling of Doped Bulk Semiconductors	p. 162
Conclusion	p. 164
References	p. 165
Improving the Efficiency of Laser Cooling of Semiconductors by Means of Bandgap Engineering in Electronic and Photonic Domains	p. 169
Introduction	p. 169
Engineering the Density of States Using Donor-Acceptor Transitions	p. 171
Refrigeration Using Phonon-Assisted Transitions	p. 174
Laser Cooling Using Type II Quantum Wells	p. 180
Photonic Bandgap for Laser Cooling	p. 186
Novel Means of Laser Cooling Using Surface Plasmon Polaritons	p. 189
Conclusions	p. 193
References	p. 194
Thermodynamics of Optical Cooling of Bulk Matter	p. 197
Introduction	p. 197
Historical Review of Optical Cooling Thermodynamics	p. 198
Quantitative Radiation Thermodynamics	p. 204
Ideal and Actual Performance of Optical Refrigerators	p. 214
Closing Remarks	p. 225
References	p. 230
Index	p. 233
Table of Contents provided by Ingram. All Rights Reserved.

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Optical Refrigeration Science and Applications of Laser Cooling of Solids

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