Organizational Communication A Lifespan Approach

Organizational Communication helps students understand their communication as participants in organizations throughout their lifetimes. It begins with how pre-career experiences influence our expectations for organizational experiences and ends with organizational exits, including retirement. This approach provides a seamless integration of theory and application while helping students at any stage of life reflect on past experiences, prepare for new endeavors and roles, and understand vital organizational theories and perspectives in new and concrete ways.

Michael W. Kramer is Emeritus Professor in the Department of Communication at the University of Oklahoma.

Ryan S. Bisel is Professor in the Department of Communication at the University of Oklahoma.

CONTENTS
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Authors

1 Introduction
Defining Communication
Information Transfer
Shared Meaning
Transactional Meaning Creation
Applying the Three Definitions of Communication
Working Definition
Defining Organizations
A Legal Definition of Organizations
A Social Definition of Organizations
A Communicative Definition of Organizations
The Complexity of Defining Communication in Organizations
Strategic Ambiguity
Ethical Issue: Strategic Ambiguity
Nonverbal Communication
Applying the Three Nonverbal Criteria
Communication Challenge: Office Design
Perspectives on Organizational Communication
A Post-Positivist Perspective
An Interpretive Perspective
A Critical Perspective
Other Perspectives
Application to Different Types of Organizations
Summary
Glossary

2 Communication and Anticipatory Socialization
Anticipatory Role Socialization
Family
Education
Communication Challenge: Realistic Expectations
Peers
Previous Experience
Communication Challenge: Comparing Workplaces
Media
Application
The “Real Job” Colloquialism
Ethical Issue: Deconstructing Our Labels
Anticipatory Role Socialization for Volunteers
Summary of Anticipatory Role Socialization
Anticipatory Organizational Socialization
Person-Job Fit
Recruitment
Selection Process
Résumés and Cover Letters
Screening Interviews
Communication Challenge: Improving Interviews
Follow-up or Second Interviews
Ethical Issue: Inappropriate Interview Questions
Realistic Job Previews
Anticipatory Organizational Socialization for Volunteers
Summary
Glossary

3 Communication and Organizational Encounter
Uncertainty Management Theory
Newcomer Socialization Through Orientation and Training
Socialization Strategies
Socialization Strategy Outcomes
Ethical Issue: Mixed Messages
Newcomers and Communication Exchange
Information Seeking
Information Sources
Communication Challenge: Trusted Colleague
Information Giving
Communication Exchange
Encounter Outcomes
Organizational Boundaries
Functional Boundaries
Hierarchical Boundaries
Inclusionary Boundaries
Ethical Issue: Vocabulary of Hierarchy
Differences Between Expectations and Experiences
Newcomer Adaptation
Newcomers in Volunteer Organizations
Summary
Glossary

4 Communication and Management Theory
Classical Management Theory
Context
Frederick Taylor's Classical Management Theory
Henri Fayol's General Management Theory
Communication Challenge: Communication and Span of Control
Weber's Bureaucratic Theory
Douglas McGregor's Theory X
Classical Management Today
Human Relations Management
Context
Hawthorne Studies
Communication Challenge: Are Happy Workers Productive Workers?
Human Relations Management Today
Human Resource Management
Context
Ethical Issue: Humans as Resources
Some Roots of Human Resource Management: McGregor's Theory Y
Principles of Human Resource Management
Human Resource Management Today
Communication Challenge: Motivation at Despair, Inc.
Teamwork or Theory Z Management
Context
Ethical Issue: Top-Level Management and Organizing for the Short Term?
Principles of Teamwork
Teamwork and Concertive Control
Ethical Issue: Is Control Ethical?
Teamwork Management Today
Management Approaches to Volunteers
Communication Challenge: Communicating to Reduce Volunteer Turnover
Applying the Three Organizational Perspectives to Management Theory
Summary
Glossary

5 Communication Channels and Structures
Traditional Communication Channels and Structures
Formal Downward Communication
Issues with Downward Communication
Amount of Information
Nature of Feedback
Information Distribution
Formal Upward Communication
Communication Challenge: Technology Application for Suggestions Boxes
Issues with Upward Communication
Lack of Receptivity
Power Differentials
Communication Challenge: Dealing with the Normal Alteration of Upward Communication
Upward “Distortion”
Self-promotion or Ingratiation
Horizontal or Lateral Communication
Issues with Lateral Communication
Competition
Specialization
Territoriality
Lack of Incentive
Informal Communication
Issues with Informal Communication
Accuracy
Ethical Issue: Gossip's Messiness
Speed
Mid-Level Employee Participation
Accountability
The Competence Network
Integrative Communication Structures
Committees
Project Teams
After Action Reviews (AARs)
Limitations of Traditional Communication Channels Approach
Communication Networks
Collecting Network Data
Characteristics of Networks
Linkage Characteristics
Individual Roles
Group Level-Characteristics
Communication Challenge: Reducing Employee Turnover by Cultivating Network Density
Organizational or System-Level Characteristics
Impact of Communication Networks
Limitations of Network Analysis
Nonprofit Organizations and Volunteers
Summary
Glossary

6 Communication and Organizational Culture
Defining Organizational Culture
Artifacts
Values
Assumptions
Interactions of Various Members
Structuration Theory and Culture
Communication Challenge: Communicating a New Value
Organizational Norms
Types of Norms
Communication Norms
Norm Development
Creating Conformity to Norms
Three Approaches to Culture
An Integrated Perspective
A Differentiated Perspective
A Fragmented Perspective
Applying Martin's Three Perspectives on Organizational Culture
A Critique of Applying the Three Perspectives
External Influences on Organizational Culture
Analyzing Organizational Culture
Script (or Narrative) Analysis
Ritual Analysis
Metaphor Analysis
Ethical Issue: Enron's Metaphors
Ethnography
A Comparison of Four Methods of Cultural Analysis
Applying Three Research Perspectives to Organizational Culture
Summary
Glossary

7 Communication and Workplace Relationships
Peer Communication and Relationships
Peer Social Support
Types of Peer Communication Relationships
Outcomes of Peer Communication
Workplace Friendships
Summary of Peer and Friendship Relations
Manager-Direct Report Communication
Common Manager-Direct Report Relationship Patterns
Perceptions of Interaction Patterns
Effective Versus Ineffective Supervisors
Openness to Communication
Pelz Effect
Semantic Information Distance
Upward Distortion
Communication Challenge: The Pelz Effect
Feedback Reluctance
Communication Challenge: “Living” Versus “Having” an Open Door Policy
Systemic Factors
Differentiated Manager Communication and Relationships: Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
Partnership Relationships
Overseer Relationships
Middle-Group Relationships
Relationship Development
Outcomes of Manager-Direct Report Communication
Summary of Manager-Direct Report Communication Patterns
Interaction of Peer and Manager Communication
Summary of Manager-Peer Relationship Interaction
Mentor(ing) Communication
Communication Challenge: Mentoring Communication
Communication Challenge: Upside Down Mentoring?
Summary of Mentoring
Emotion Management in Interpersonal Interactions
The Nature of Emotions in Interactions
Ethical Issue: The Moral “Signaling” Function of Emotions
Types of Emotions
Emotion Management
Communication Challenge: Peer Communication and Emotion Management
Volunteers and Interpersonal Relationships
Summary
Glossary

8 Communication and Leadership
Managerial or Group Leadership
Managerial Leadership as Traits
Models of Management Styles
Contingency Models of Managerial Leading
External Communication Focus of Managers
Dialectical Theory and Managerial Leadership
Communication Challenge: African American Women Executives' Leadership Communication
Managerial Leadership and Volunteers
Summary of Managerial Leadership
Organizational Leadership
Charismatic Leadership
Visionary Leadership
Transformational (and Transactional) Leadership
Institutional Leadership
Sensemaking Theory
Framing Theory
Communication Challenge: Framing and Managerial Leadership
Organizational Leadership of Volunteers
Ethical Issue: Leaders' Moral Talk Is Contagious (in a Good Way)
The Dark Side of Managerial and Organizational Leadership
Comparing Managerial and Organizational Leadership
Summary
Glossary

9 Communication and Decision-Making
A Prescriptive Model of Decision-Making
The Model
Communication Challenge: Improving Decision-Making Through Brainstorming
Descriptive Models of Decision-Making
Phase Models
Alternative Descriptive Models
The Spiral Model
Communication Challenge: Leading Group Decisions
Vigilant Interaction Theory
Alternative Decision-Making Processes
Satisficing
Garbage Can Model
Retrospective Rationality
Ethical Issue: Retrospective Rationality
Faulty Decision-Making
Groupthink
Other Characteristics of Ineffective Decision-Making
Communication Challenge: Avoiding Groupthink and Ineffective Decision-Making Practices
Overcoming Faulty Decision Making: HRO Theory
Decision-Making in Volunteer Organizations
Summary
Glossary

10 Communication and Conflict
Defining Conflict
Typologies of Conflict
Level of Conflicts
Intrapersonal Conflict
Interpersonal Conflicts
Intergroup Conflicts
Interorganizational Conflicts
Content of Conflicts
Visibility of Conflicts
Application
Conflict as Dysfunctional and Functional
Conflict Styles
Bargaining and Negotiation in Conflict
Ethical Issue: Ethical Bargaining
Managing Conflict Through Third Parties
Communication and Conflict with Abusive Coworkers
Workplace Bullying
Defining Workplace Bullying
Ethical Issue: Wanting to Belong and Participation in Social Bullying
Causes
Characteristics of Perpetrators
Characteristics of Targets
Environmental Factors
Effects of Bullying
Coping with Bullying
Addressing Bullying
Sexual Harassment
Defining Sexual Harassment
Ethical Issue: Sender or Receiver Priority
Causes of Sexual Harassment
Effects of Sexual Harassment
Coping with Sexual Harassment
Addressing Sexual Harassment
Conflict in Nonprofit/Volunteer Settings
Summary
Glossary

11 Communication, Power, and Resistance
Definitions
Power and Influence
Ideology (or Ideologies)
Surface and Deep Structure Power
Surface Level Power
Types of Power
Communication Challenge: Increasing Personal Power
Reasons for Power Relationships
Power as Resource Dependency
Power as Social Exchange
Power and Personal Characteristics
Deep Structure Power
Communication Challenge: Muting Voices of the Mistreated
Resistance to Power
Ethical Issue: Ethics and Decaf Resistance
Voice and Resistance
Ethical Issue: Boat Rocking and Whistleblowing
Silence, Resistance, and Voice
Power and Resistance in Nonprofits and Volunteers
Summary
Glossary

12 Communication and Work-Nonwork Issues
The Changing Workplace
General Causes of Work-Life Conflict
Time-Based Conflict
Strain-Based Conflict
Behavior-Based Conflict
Specific Causes of Work-Life Conflict
Social Norms That Increase Work-Life Conflict
Ethical Issue: To Work or Not to Work, That Is the Question
Outcomes of Work-Life Conflict
Managing Work-Life Boundaries
Communication Challenge: Choosing Communication Media for Boundary Management in Global Virtual Organizing
Ethical Issue: Segmenting Salaried Workers
Family-Friendly Work Policies
Communication Challenge: Unintended Consequences of Family-Life Policies
Positive Effects of Family-Friendly Policies
Problematic Issues of Family-Friendly Policies
Career Repercussions
Difficulty Negotiating Leave Policies
Peer Pressure Against Using the Policy
Resistance to Work-Life Integration
Work-Family Third-Place (Life Enrichment) Balance
Volunteer Roles
Types of Volunteering
Work-Family-Life Enrichment Balance
Ethical Issue: Disingenuous Volunteering?
Summary
Glossary

13 Communication and the Changing Work Environment: Technology, Diversity, and Globalization
Systems Theory
Defining Change
Reactions to Change
Communication Challenge: Resisting Changes or Change Communication
Communication and Change
Communication Challenge: Design a Ceremony
Changing Communication Technology
Media Richness Theory
Changes in Communication Expectations
Changing How Meaning Is Established
Ethical Issue: Organizational Image Versus Personal Social Media Use
Changing Decision-Making Expectations
Communication Challenge: Creating a Collaborative Organizational Policy of Internet Usage
Changing Interpersonal Communication Interactions
Ethical Issue: Using Social Media to Convey and Express Private Opinions
Summary of Changing Communication Technology
Cultural Diversity: The Changing Workforce
Cultural Diversity and Communication
Cultural Diversity in the Workplace
Ethical Issue: Creating Teams
Influence of Diversity on Group and Organizational Effectiveness
Summary of Cultural Diversity
Globalization
Change and Nonprofit Organizations and Volunteers
Changes in Funding and Collaboration
Changing Volunteers
Culturally Diverse Understandings of Volunteers
Globalization and Volunteers
Summary
Glossary

14 Communication During Career and Organizational Transitions
Communicative Theory of Resilience
Individual Career Transitions
Communication and Promotions
Promotion Selection Context
Ethical Issue: Promotion Types and Bias
The Selection Process for Promotions
Promotion Process
Promotions, Biological Sex, and Communication Style
Communication and Job Transfers
Communication and Domestic Job Transfers
Purposes of Domestic Job Transfers
The Process for Job Transfers
Effects on the Workgroup
Communication and International Job Transfers
Communication and Career Plateaus
Organizational Transitions
Mergers and Acquisitions
The M&A Process
The Pre-Merger Phase
The In-Play Phase
Communication Challenge: Rumors and Sensemaking
Transition Phase
Ethical Issue: Leading the Combining of Two Cultures
The Stabilization Phase
Reductions-in-Force or Layoffs
Pre-Announcement Phase
Announcement Phase
Post-Layoff Phase
Individual and Organizational Transitions for Volunteers
Summary
Glossary

15 Communication During Organizational Exit
Social Exchange Theory
Voluntary Exit
Planned Exits
Shocks
Gradual Disenchantment
Mixed Reasons for Voluntary Turnover
Network Location
Career Opportunities
Career Changes
Retirement
The Voluntary Exit Process
The Preannouncement Phase
The Announcement Phase
The Exit Phase
Exit Interviews
Communication Challenge: Exit Interviews with College Interns
Involuntary Exit
Immediate or Summary Dismissal
Progressive Discipline
Ethical Issue: Fired over Facebook
Communication Challenge: The EAGR Approach to Giving Corrective Feedback
A Third Form of Exit
Exit and Volunteers
Summary
Epilogue
A Dark Side of Organizational Membership
Socialization and Individualization
Conclusion
Glossary

References
Credits
Index