Philosophy of History: A Guide for Students

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ISBN: 9780415162050 | 041516205X
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Copyright: 6/9/2003

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This work is an essential introduction to the vast body of writing about history, from classical Greece and Rome to the contemporary world. M.C. Lemon maps out key debates and central concepts of philosophy of history placing principal thinkers in the context of their times and schools of thought. Lemon explains the crucial differences between speculative philosophy as an n enquiry into the course and meaning of history and analytic philosophy of history as relating to the nature and methods of history as a discipline. After providing a guide to the principal thinkers from pre-historical times to the present, the book goes on to present a critical summary of the leading issues raised by critical theorists of history, incorporating topics such as objectivity, ideology, historical explanation and narrative.

Acknowledgements

xvi

Introduction

(4)

PART I Speculative philosophy of history

(274)

1 Speculative philosophy of history: what is it and why study it?

(7)

Introduction - the two branches of philosophy of history: speculative and analytic

(1)

'Philosophy'

(1)

Speculative philosophy of history

(5)

The relevance of speculative philosophy of history

(2)

Is speculative philosophy of history worthwhile?

(2)

2 Pre-classical ideas on 'history'

(14)

Introduction: principles of selection

(2)

A 'pre-historic' mentality?

(3)

A mythical consciousness of the past?

(1)

'I' and 'Thou'

(1)

'Poetry'

(1)

'Primitiveness'

(1)

'Childhood'

(1)

A bizarre or 'workable' mentality?

(1)

Ancient ideas of history

(6)

Time

(1)

The passing of time

(1)

The archetypal past

(1)

'Story-telling' and 'historical causality'

(1)

'Progress'

(1)

'Science'

(1)

The earthly life

(1)

Some reflections

(3)

3 Classical Greek and Roman speculations on history

(17)

Introduction

(3)

The emergence from 'myth'

(1)

Reasons for the shift

(2)

Classical Greek and Roman ideas on 'history'

(10)

Historical cycles

(2)

'Fate', 'Fortune', and 'the gods'

(2)

The principle of growth (the biological analogy)

(2)

Decay, and 'the ages of man'

(2)

Political cycles

(1)

Unchanging 'human nature'

(1)

Comments

(4)

Conflicting views on the idea of 'progress' in the Classical world

(3)

'Progress' and philosophy of history: special pleading?

(1)

4 The Christian challenge to Graeco-Roman historical perspectives

(29)

Introduction

(1)

Roman historical ideas

(7)

The 'Four World-Monarchies' myth

(1)

Cycles

(1)

The demise of Empire

(1)

'Rome Eternal'

(1)

Escape from cycles?

(1)

The 'body-state' analogy

(2)

Other presuppositions

(1)

Graeco-Roman historical ideology summarised

(1)

The Judaeo-Christian alternative

(4)

Jewish apocalyptic ideas

(2)

Early Christianity

(1)

Augustine (354-430)

(1)

The Graeco-Roman/Judaeo-Christian divide

(5)

The dichotomy questioned

(2)

The dichotomy denied?

(1)

The dichotomy affirmed?

(2)

Augustine, the philosopher of history?

(8)

Augustine's two 'cities'

(1)

The irrelevance of history?

(1)

History as relevant?

(2)

Interpreting Augustine

(2)

Some heuristics of the history of thought

(2)

Summary comments

(5)

The Christian challenge

(1)

Cyclical and linear history

(1)

The Christian deity and history

(1)

The temporal and spiritual lives

(3)

5 A changing consciousness of history: the Renaissance and Machiavelli

(33)

Introduction

The 'Middle Ages'

(1)

Historical monotony?

(1)

Aquinas

(1)

'Scholasticism'

Renaissance humanism and 'the Middle Ages'

(10)

Effects on historical consciousness

(1)

The humanists and 'secularism'

(2)

Broader Renaissance secularism

(4)

Economic activity and secularism

(1)

Individualism'

(1)

'Cultural relativism'

(1)

Printing

(1)

Limitations of the Renaissance 'Cultural Revolution'

(5)

Continuing relevance of 'the Renaissance'

(1)

'Movements'

(2)

Thomas More's Utopia

(3)

Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527)

(14)

Machiavelli's reputation

(1)

Machiavelli on history

(1)

Learning from history

(2)

Principles underlying history - unchanging nature and human nature

(1)

'Education' : law, role-models, and religion

(2)

The role of individuals

100

(1)

'Fortune'

100

(2)

Cycles

102

(1)

God

103

(1)

Summary comments

104

(3)

6 An innovative interlude: from Machiavelli to Vico

107

(20)

Introduction

107

(1)

Vico's originality

107

(1)

Vico's intellectual inheritance

108

(16)

The Scientific Revolution

108

(3)

Seventeenth-century philosophy

111

(1)

'Empiricism'

111

(1)

Seventeenth-century 'rationalism'

112

(3)

Seventeenth-century political thought

115

(4)

The discipline of history

119

(1)

Religion and Biblical criticism

120

(4)

Conclusion

124

(3)

7 Vico's philosophy of history

127

(41)

Introduction

127

(4)

Vico's intellectual development

127

(1)

Vico's 'great discovery'

128

(1)

Vico's 'master-key'

129

(2)

The question of true knowledge

131

(5)

The earlier Vico

131

(1)

'True knowledge' in the New Science

132

(4)

Vico's 'ideal eternal history'

136

(11)

Mankind's origins - 'the age of gods'

136

(4)

The 'age of heroes'

140

(3)

The 'age of men'

143

(2)

Monarchy in the 'age of men'

145

(1)

The potential demise of 'the age of men'

146

(1)

The recourse of history

147

(5)

The idea of 'recourse'

147

(2)

'Recourse' in post-Classical European history

149

(1)

The inevitability of 'recourse'?

150

(2)

Religion and the meaning of history

152

(7)

Biblical history and the Hebrews

153

(1)

Christianity

153

(2)

'Providence'

155

(2)

Divine grace

157

(2)

Religion and history in Vico

159

(1)

Political dimensions

159

(6)

Cyclical depression?

159

(2)

Stopping the rot?

161

(2)

A new age?

163

(2)

Summary comments

165

(3)

8 Speculative philosophy of history during the Enlightenment

168

(33)

Introduction

168

(3)

Vico and the Enlightenment

168

(1)

The Enlightenment

168

(2)

Enlightenment 'philosophy of history'

170

(1)

Rousseau

171

(13)

The Discourse on the Arts and Sciences

171

(3)

The Discourse on the Origins of Inequality

174

(1)

The 'noble savage'

175

(1)

The disastrous progress of mankind

176

(2)

The origins of political societies

178

(1)

The final stages

179

(1)

Rousseau's philosophy of history

180

(1)

Postscript on Rousseau - The Social Contract

181

(2)

Critique

183

(1)

Turgot

184

(3)

On 'progress' and 'rationality'

184

(2)

The monitoring of 'progress'

186

(1)

Condorcet

187

(9)

Historical premises

188

(1)

The ten stages of history

189

(2)

Overview of Condorcet's philosophy of history

191

(2)

The tenth stage

193

(1)

Politics and philosophy of history in Condorcet

194

(2)

Edmund Burke

196

(1)

The argument of the Reflections

196

(4)

Conclusion

200

(1)

9 Hegel's philosophy of history

201

(37)

Introduction

201

(8)

The influence of Hegel's times

202

(1)

Introduction to Hegel's thought

203

(1)

Mind objectifying itself

204

(1)

Dialectics

205

(1)

Impersonal 'Reason'

206

(3)

Hegel's Philosophy of Right

209

(4)

Right, will, and freedom

209

(1)

Property and crime

210

(1)

'Morality' and conscience

211

(1)

Ethical life - the family

211

(1)

Ethical life - 'Civil Society'

212

(1)

Ethical life - 'the state'

212

(1)

Hegel's The Philosophy of History

213

(8)

'Spirit'

214

(1)

'Spirit' and World history

215

(1)

Hegel's method

215

(2)

The state and 'World History'

217

(1)

National Spirits

218

(3)

'History proper'

221

(9)

The Oriental realm

221

(1)

The Greek realm

222

(1)

The Roman realm

223

(1)

The Germanic realm

224

(1)

The first period

225

(1)

The second period

226

(1)

The third period: the Renaissance

226

(1)

The Reformation

227

(1)

The emergence of 'modern times'

228

(1)

The 1789 French Revolution

229

(1)

The end of history?

230

(4)

Loose ends

231

(2)

USA - the future?

233

(1)

Conclusion

234

(4)

10 Marx on history

238

(41)

Introduction

238

(7)

Philosophical foundations: the early Marx

240

(2)

Towards private property and the proletariat

242

(3)

Marx's 'immature' philosophy of history

245

(8)

Feuerbach and 'materialism'

247

(1)

Feuerbach, Marx, and Hegel

248

(2)

The resonance of Marx's 'immature' philosophy of history

250

(3)

Marx's revised theory of history: 'Historical Materialism'

253

(18)

From 'philosophy' to 'practice': Marx's epistemology

253

(2)

Historical materialism: The German Ideology

255

(2)

Division of labour

257

(1)

The state

258

(1)

Superstructure and ideology

259

(2)

The course of history: historical change

261

(1)

Historical sketch

262

(1)

Feudalism and the Middle Ages

262

(1)

Pre-industrial capitalism

263

(1)

Industrial capitalism

264

(1)

The moral dimension

265

(1)

The prediction of 'communism'

266

(3)

Later developments

269

(2)

Comments

271

(10)

'Progress', 'determinism', and inevitability

271

(3)

'Science' versus philosophy'

274

(2)

The demise of 'philosophy of history' ?

276

(3)

PART II Analytic philosophy of history

279

(78)

11 Analytic philosophy of history: what is it and why study it?

281

(9)

Analytic philosophy of history

281

(9)

Historical methodology - an important distinction

281

(1)

The difference between historical methodology and analytic philosophy of history

282

(1)

The blurring of the difference

283

(2)

The relevance of analytic philosophy of history

285

(1)

Theoretical and practical studies

286

(1)

'Observing' things

286

(2)

'History proper'

288

(1)

Foreign territory?

288

(2)

12 The 'what is history?' debate

290

(33)

Introduction

290

(1)

Theoretical preliminaries

290

(4)

'Actual' and 'ideal' history

290

(1)

Words and 'reality'

291

(1)

The word, 'history'

292

(1)

History as 'the study of the past'

293

(1)

'Types' of history

294

(7)

Descriptive history

294

(1)

Analytic history

295

(3)

Narrative history

298

(3)

The epistemological status of 'history'

301

(7)

Acquiring knowledge of things past

302

(1)

Evidence, inference, and facts

303

(1)

The reliability of 'facts'

304

(1)

Proof and 'sources'

304

(2)

Written sources - their limitations

306

(2)

'Historical explanation'

308

(10)

Scientific causality

308

(1)

'Covering-law' models

309

(1)

'Explaining' things

310

(2)

Historical accounts

312

(1)

Narrative and 'explanation'

313

(1)

The logic of narrative sequences

313

(1)

Narrative and conventional understanding

314

(1)

Indeterminacy in human conduct

315

(1)

Summary

315

(1)

'Historical explanation' restored? - 'explication'

316

(2)

Historical topics

318

(3)

'Anything goes'?

318

(1)

Narrative parameters

319

(1)

Highways and byways

320

(1)

Summary comments

321

(2)

13 What is history for?

323

(34)

Introduction

323

(2)

Theoretical preliminaries

325

(3)

The practising historian

328

(5)

Practically motivated historical work

329

(2)

Historical work 'for its own sake'

331

(2)

The communication of history: the history 'book'

333

(17)

Practically motivated historical writings

334

(1)

The nature and role of 'ideology' in communicating history

335

(4)

Three questions

339

(2)

History written 'for its own sake'

341

(4)

Narrative history 'for its own sake'

345

(2)

'Relevant' and 'significant' facts

347

(2)

Summary

349

(1)

Why read history?

350

(6)

Reading history 'for the sake of it'

350

(3)

Reading history as a means to an end

353

(3)

Conclusion

356

(1)

PART III The end of history?

357

(72)

14 The end of history? The postmodernist challenge

359

(31)

Introduction

359

(1)

The nature of postmodern theory

359

(4)

The basic postmodernist perspective

359

(2)

Postmodernism as a 'movement'

361

(2)

Some key postmodernist thinkers

363

(7)

Derrida

363

(1)

Foucault

364

(1)

Lyotard

365

(2)

Baudrillard

367

(2)

Jameson

369

(1)

Postmodernism and the discipline of history

370

(1)

The issues

370

(1)

Postmodern history: two contemporary examples

371

(14)

Munslow: the problem with mainstream history

371

(3)

Munslow's alternative 'history'

374

(1)

Critique

375

(3)

Jenkins on 'own-sakism'

378

(3)

Jenkins on the postmodern alternative 'history'

381

(1)

Critique

382

(3)

Conclusion: the foundations of postmodernism revisited

385

(5)

'Ideology' : shallow and deep

386

(4)

15 The End of History? Fukuyama's speculative philosophy of history

390

Introduction

390

(3)

'The times we live in'

390

(1)

The revival o f speculative philosophy of history

391

(2)

The logic of historical development

393

(11)

The 'Mechanism' of modern natural science

393

(2)

The 'Mechanism' behind liberal democracy

395

(2)

Some preparatory reservations

397

(1)

'Spirit', thymos, the desire for recognition

398

(2)

Megalothymia

400

(1)

Isothymia

401

(3)

The contemporary world

404

(6)

Thymos and liberal democracy

404

(1)

Thymos and economics

405

(2)

International relations and war

407

(2)

Nationalism

409

(1)

The end of history?

410

(16)

The challenge from the Left

411

(2)

The challenge from the Right

413

(2)

Thymos and the future: Fukuyama's doubts

415

(2)

Fukuyama's doubts resolved?

417

(2)

Critique

419

(1)

Empirical judgements

419

(1)

The Islamic world

420

(2)

Philosophy and ideology

422

(2)

Fukuyama's message

424

(1)

Thymos revisited

425

(1)

Concluding reflections

426

(3)

Notes

429

(19)

Bibliography

448

(4)

Index

452

0773468536

List of tables

Acknowledgements

iii

Abbreviations

vii

Preface

Introduction

(32)

1 Building a pyramid or sitting on a volcano

(56)

1.1 The seeds of university education

(6)

1.2 The limited response: Achimota

(7)

1.3 The evolution of regionalism

(10)

1.4 In which everyone learns a lesson

(31)

1.4.1 The Elliot Commission

(8)

1.4.2 London's response

(3)

1.4.3 Reactions in the Gold Coast

1.4.4 Who pays the piper?

(66)

1.4.5 The price of education

(8)

2 'Your ignorance has made their greatness'

(46)

2.1 The antecedents of advanced education in French West Africa

(14)

2.2 'The danger is to educate too much'

104

(9)

2.3 The Conference in Brazzaville

113

(6)

2.4 Sudden promise of a university

119

(3)

2.5 Time for change: the advent of the Union Française

122

(7)

2.6 Anglo-French entente

129

(6)

3 Black students, white dons: Early development of the University

135

(56)

3.1 The Cambridge of West Africa

136

(5)

3.2 The 'Special Relationship' with the University of London

141

(4)

3.3 Choosing the right staff

145

(7)

3.4 Autonomous government for the University College

152

(7)

3.5 Curriculum choices: Aristotle or Agriculture?

159

(3)

3.6 American influence on the development of higher education in the Gold Coast

162

(29)

3.6.1 Technological and vocational courses and the American model

166

(4)

3.6.2 American funding for West African students

170

(3)

3.6.3 Gold Coast scholars in America

173

(10)

3.6.4 The value of American qualifications to the Gold Coast

183

(8)

4 The 'sabotage of education'

191

(50)

4.1 The first steps at the Institut des Hautes Etudes de Dakar

193

(10)

4.2 The period of uncertainty

203

(4)

4.3 Piecemeal development

207

(29)

4.3.1 Patronage

209

(4)

4.3.2 Staffing

213

(6)

4.3.3 The creation of the académie

219

(6)

4.3.4 Africanisation of the curriculum

225

(6)

4.3.5 Islam and education

231

(2)

4.3.6 Technical education

233

(1)

4.3.7 Alternative models

234

(2)

4.4 The metamorphosis

236

(5)

5 Nationalism, the best insurance against communism

241

(60)

5.1 The nationalists in government

242

(12)

5.2 Gold Coast students in Great Britain

254

(18)

5.3 Challenges to academic autonomy at Legon

272

(29)

5.3.1 Suppression of subversive literature

274

5.3.2 Keeping the communists out and in

216

(63)

5.3.3 Sorting the sound sheep from the revolutionary goats: the academic staff

279

(6)

5.3.4 Off-campus education and the communist threat: the Extra-Mural Department

285

(8)

5.3.5 The boys at Legon

293

(8)

6 Vigil ales evocat auroram: the Legon rooster greets the dawn of independence

301

(42)

6.1 Educating for leadership: career prospects for Legon graduates

303

(2)

6.2 The road to Africanisation

305

(6)

6.3 Pitfalls for the Africanisation programme

311

(2)

6.4 Africanisation and the development of the University College

313

(7)

6.5 Scholarships for study home and abroad

320

(7)

6.6 The Kumagi College of Arts, Science and Technology

327

(16)

7 Les mauvais garçons noirs: West African students in France

343

(34)

7.1 The scholarships

348

(7)

7.2 'What harm is there in the students dancing the bebop?'

355

(5)

7.3 Grants and nationalism: the student organisations

360

(9)

7.4 Qu 'est-ce que c'est que la WASU?

369

7.5 Remedial measures

311

(66)

8 The University of Dakar, a French university in the service of Africa

377

(46)

8.1 Student activism in AOF

381

(11)

8.2 Aspiring to leadership

392

(9)

8.3 Africanisation: prospects for graduate employment

401

(8)

8.4 The final mile to independence

409

(7)

8.5 Lux mea lex: finally, the University of Dakar

416

(7)

9 Politics and the University of Ghana: 'the last bastion of Independent thought'

423

(38)

9.1 The end of the beginning

424

9.2 Institutional relations: Vice-Chancellors versus governments

421

(11)

9.3 The politics of students in independent Ghana

432

(6)

9.4 NULS, consistent vehicle of opposition

438

(4)

9.5 The media and the public voice of the University

442

(1)

9.6 The responsibilities of the University: relevance, research and outreach

443

(6)

9.7 University staffing and staff politics

449

(8)

9.8 Continuing to make the best of it?

457

(4)

10 Politics and higher education in independent Sénégal

461

(32)

10.1 Student politics: the tradition of confrontation

463

(18)

10.2 The political engagement of the University staff

481

(3)

10.3 University politics: subject to the Senegalese state

484

(7)

10.4 A legacy of dissent?

491

(2)

Epilogue: The legacies compared

493

(12)

Bibliography

505

(22)

A. List of primary sources

505

B. Official publications, pamphlets and reports

501

(9)

C. Personal communications

510

(1)

D. Journals and periodicals

511

(1)

E. Secondary sources

512

(15)

Index

527

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