Physical Metallurgy Principles

, by Abbaschian, Reza; Reed-Hill, Robert E.

Note: Supplemental materials are not guaranteed with Rental or Used book purchases.

ISBN: 9780534921736 | 0534921736
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 12/24/1991

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* Covers all aspects of physical metallurgy and behavior of metals and alloys. * Presents the principles on which metallurgy is based. * Concepts such as heat affected zone and structure-property relationships are covered. * Principles of casting are clearly outlined in the chapter on solidification. * Advanced treatment on physical metallurgy provides specialized information on metals.

The Structure of Metals

(33)

The Structure of Metals

(1)

Metallographic Specimen Preparation

(3)

The Crystal Structure of Metals

(1)

Unit Cells

(1)

The Body-Centered Cubic Structure

(1)

Coordination Number of the Body-Centered Cubic Lattice

(1)

The Face-Centered Cubic Lattice

(1)

The Unit Cell of the Close-Packed Hexagonal Lattice

(1)

Comparison of the Face-Centered Cubic and Close-Packed Hexagonal Structures

(1)

Coordination Number of the Systems of Closest Packing,

(1)

Anisotropy

(1)

Textures or Preferred Orientations,

(2)

Miller Indices

(5)

Crystal Structures of the Metallic Elements

(1)

The Stereographic Projection

(2)

Directions That Lie in a Plane

(1)

Planes of a Zone

(2)

The Wulff Net

(3)

Standard Projections

(3)

The Standard Stereographic Triangle for Cubic Crystals

(4)

Problems

(3)

Analytical Methods

(35)

The Bragg Law

(4)

Laue Techniques

(3)

The Rotating Crystal Method

(1)

The Debye-Scherrer or Powder Method

(4)

The X-Ray Diffractometer

(1)

The Transmission Electron Microscope

(7)

Interactions Between the Electrons in an Electron Beam and a Metallic Specimen

(1)

Elastic Scattering

(1)

Inelastic Scattering

(1)

Electron Spectrum

(1)

The Scanning Electron Microscope

(3)

Topographic Contrast

(2)

The Picture Element Size

(2)

The Depth of Focus

(1)

Microanalysis of Specimens

(1)

Electron Probe X-Ray Microanalysis

(2)

The Characteristic X-Rays

(2)

Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES)

(2)

The Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy (STEM)

(2)

Problems

(1)

Crystal Binding

(21)

The Internal Energy of a Crystal

(1)

Ionic Crystals

(2)

The Born Theory of Ionic Crystals

(4)

Van der Waals Crystals

(1)

Dipoles

(2)

Inert Gases

(1)

Induced Dipoles

(2)

The Lattice Energy of an Inert-Gas Solid

(1)

The Debye Frequency

(2)

The Zero Point Energy

(1)

Dipole-Quadrupole and Quadrupole-Quadrupole Terms

(1)

Molecular Crystals

(1)

Refinements to the Born Theory of Ionic Crystals

(1)

Covalent and Metallic Bonding

(6)

Problems

(2)

Introduction to Dislocations

(35)

The Discrepancy Between the Theoretical and Observed Yield Stresses of Crystals

(2)

Dislocations

(8)

The Burgers Vector

(3)

Vector Notation for Dislocations

102

(1)

Dislocations in the Face-Centered Cubic Lattice

103

(4)

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Stacking Faults in Face-Centered Cubic Metals

107

(1)

Extended Dislocations in Hexagonal Metals

108

(1)

Climb of Edge Dislocations

108

(2)

Dislocation Intersections

110

(3)

The Stress Field of a Screw Dislocation

113

(1)

The Stress Field of an Edge Dislocation

114

(2)

The Force on a Dislocation

116

(4)

The Strain Energy of a Screw Dislocation

120

(1)

The Strain Energy of an Edge Dislocation

121

(3)

Problems

121

(3)

Dislocations and Plastic Deformation

124

(44)

The Frank-Read Source

124

(1)

Nucleation of Dislocations

125

(4)

Bend Gliding

129

(2)

Rotational Slip

131

(3)

Slip Planes and Slip Directions

134

(1)

Slip Systems

135

(1)

Critical Resolved Shear Stress

136

(3)

Slip on Equivalent Slip Systems

139

(1)

The Dislocation Density

140

(1)

Slip System in Different Crystal Forms

140

(6)

Cross-Slip

146

(1)

Slip Bands

147

(1)

Double Cross-Slip

148

(1)

Extended Dislocations and Cross-Slip

149

(2)

Crystal Structure Rotation During Tensile and Compressive Deformation

151

(2)

The Notation for the Slip Systems in the Deformation of F.C.C. Crystals

153

(3)

Work Hardening

156

(2)

Considere's Criterion

158

(1)

The Relation Between Dislocation Density and the Stress

159

(1)

Taylor's Relation

160

(1)

The Dislocation Velocity

161

(1)

The Discontinuous Nature of Dislocation Movement

162

(1)

The Orowan Equation

163

(5)

Problems

165

(3)

Elements of Grain Boundaries

168

(36)

Grain Boundaries

168

(1)

Dislocation Model of a Small-Angle Grain Boundary

168

(2)

The Five Degrees of Freedom of a Grain Boundary

170

(2)

The Stress Field of a Grain Boundary

172

(2)

Grain-Boundary Energy

174

(4)

Low-Energy Dislocation Structures, LEDS

178

(3)

Dynamic Recovery

181

(2)

Surface Tension of the Grain Boundary

183

(3)

Boundaries Between Crystals of Different Phases

186

(4)

The Grain Size

190

(2)

The Effect of Grain Boundaries on Mechanical Properties

192

(2)

Coincidence Site Boundaries

194

(2)

The Density of Coincidence Sites

196

(1)

The Ranganathan Relations

196

(1)

Examples Involving Twist Boundaries

197

(2)

Tilt Boundaries

199

(5)

Problems

202

(2)

Vacancies

204

(23)

Thermal Behavior of Metals

204

(1)

Internal Energy

205

(1)

Entropy

206

(1)

Spontaneous Reactions

207

(1)

Gibbs Free Energy

207

(2)

Statistical Mechanical Definition of Entropy

209

(5)

Vacancies

214

(5)

Vacancy Motion

219

(3)

Interstitial Atoms and Divacancies

222

(5)

Problems

225

(2)

Annealing

227

(45)

Stored Energy of Cold Work

227

(1)

The Relationship of Free Energy to Strain Energy

228

(1)

The Release of Stored Energy

229

(1)

Recovery

230

(1)

Recovery in Single Crystals

231

(2)

Polygonization

233

(2)

Dislocation Movements in Polygonization

235

(4)

Recovery Processes at High and Low Temperatures

239

(1)

Recrystallization

240

(1)

The Effect of Time and Temperature on Recrystallization

240

(2)

Recrystallization Temperature

242

(1)

The Effect of Strain on Recrystallization

243

(1)

The Rate of Nucleation and the Rate of Nucleus Growth

244

(1)

Formation of Nuclei

245

(2)

Driving Force for Recrystallization

247

(1)

The Recrystallized Grain Size

247

(2)

Other Variables in Recrystallization

249

(1)

Purity of the Metal

250

(1)

Initial Grain Size

251

(1)

Grain Growth

251

(3)

Geometrical Coalescence

254

(1)

Three-Dimensional Changes in Grain Geometry

255

(1)

The Grain Growth Law

256

(5)

Impurity Atoms in Solid Solution

261

(1)

Impurities in the Form of Inclusions

262

(2)

The Free-Surface Effects

264

(2)

The Limiting Grain Size

266

(1)

Preferred Orientation

267

(1)

Secondary Recrystallization

268

(1)

Strain-Induced Boundary Migration

269

(3)

Problems

270

(2)

Solid Solutions

272

(28)

Solid Solutions

272

(1)

Intermediate Phases

272

(1)

Interstitial Solid Solutions

273

(1)

Solubility of Carbon in Body-Centered Cubic Iron

274

(4)

Substitutional Solid Solutions and the Hume-Rothery Rules

278

(1)

Interaction of Dislocations and Solute Atoms

279

(1)

Dislocation Atmospheres

279

(1)

The Formation of a Dislocation Atmosphere

280

(1)

The Evaluation of A

281

(1)

The Drag of Atmospheres on Moving Dislocations

282

(2)

The Sharp Yield Point and Luders Bands

284

(2)

The Theory of the Sharp Yield Point

286

(2)

Strain Aging

288

(1)

The Cottrell-Bilby Theory of Strain Aging

289

(5)

Dynamic Strain Aging

294

(6)

Problems

298

(2)

Phases

300

(25)

Basic Definitions

300

(2)

The Physical Nature of Phase Mixtures

302

(1)

Thermodynamics of Solutions

302

(3)

Equilibrium Between Two Phases

305

(1)

The Number of Phases in an Alloy System

306

(9)

Two-Component Systems Containing Two Phases

315

(2)

Graphical Determinations of Partial-Molal Free Energies

317

(2)

Two-Component Systems with Three Phases in Equilibrium

319

(1)

The Phase Rule

320

(2)

Ternary Systems

322

(3)

Problems

323

(2)

Binary Phase Diagrams

325

(35)

Phase Diagrams

325

(1)

Isomorphous Alloy Systems

325

(2)

The Lever Rule

327

(3)

Equilibrium Heating or Cooling of an Isomorphous Alloy

330

(2)

The Isomorphous Alloy System from the Point of View of Free Energy

332

(2)

Maxima and Minima

334

(2)

Superlattices

336

(4)

Miscibility Gaps

340

(2)

Eutectic Systems

342

(1)

The Micro-structures of Eutectic Systems

343

(6)

The Peritectic Transformation

349

(3)

Monotectics

352

(1)

Other Three-Phase Reactions

353

(1)

Intermediate Phases

353

(3)

The Copper-Zinc Phase Diagram

356

(4)

Problems

358

(2)

Diffusion in Substitutional Solid Solutions

360

(43)

Diffusion in an Ideal Solution

360

(4)

The Kirkendall Effect

364

(3)

Porosity

367

(2)

Darken's Equations

369

(4)

Fick's Second Law

373

(3)

The Matano Method

376

(3)

Determination of the Intrinsic Diffusivities

379

(2)

Self-Diffusion in Pure Metals

381

(2)

Temperature Dependence of the Diffusion Coefficient

383

(2)

Chemical Diffusion at Low-Solute Concentration

385

(2)

The Study of Chemical Diffusion Using Radioactive Tracers

387

(3)

Diffusion Along Grain Boundaries and Free Surfaces

390

(5)

Fick's First Law in Terms of a Mobility and an Effective Force

395

(8)

Problems

401

(2)

Interstital Diffusion

403

(18)

Measurement of Interstitial Diffusivities

404

(1)

The Snoek Effect

405

(6)

Experimental Determination of the Relaxation Time

411

(7)

Experimental Data

418

(1)

Anelastic Measurement at Constant Strain

419

(2)

Problems

420

(1)

Solidification of Metals

421

(58)

The Liquid Phase

421

(4)

Nucleation

425

(2)

Metallic Glasses

427

(7)

Crystal Growth from the Liquid Phase

434

(2)

The Heats of Fusion and Vaporization

436

(1)

The Nature of the Liquid-Solid Interface

437

(2)

Continuous Growth

439

(2)

Lateral Growth

441

(2)

Stable Interface Freezing

443

(1)

Dendritic Growth in Pure Metals

444

(3)

Freezing in Alloys

447

(2)

The Scheil Equation

449

(3)

Dendritic Freezing in Alloys

452

(3)

Freezing of Ingots

455

(3)

The Grain Size of Castings

458

(1)

Segregation

459

(2)

Homogenization

461

(6)

Inverse Segregation

467

(1)

Porosity

467

(4)

Eutectic Freezing

471

(8)

Problems

476

(3)

Nucleation and Growth Kinetics

479

(36)

Nucleation of a Liquid from the Vapor

479

(8)

The Becker-Doring Theory

487

(2)

Freezing

489

(3)

Solid-State Reactions

492

(3)

Heterogeneous Nucleation

495

(3)

Growth Kinetics

498

(3)

Diffusion Controlled Growth

501

(5)

Interference of Growing Precipitate Particles

506

(1)

Interface Controlled Growth

507

(2)

Transformations That Occur on Heating

509

(1)

Dissolution of a Precipitate

510

(5)

Problems

513

(2)

Precipitation Hardening

515

(23)

The Significance of the Solvus Curve

515

(2)

The Solution Treatment

517

(1)

The Aging Treatment

518

(3)

Development of Precipitates

521

(2)

Aging of Al-Cu Alloys at Temperatures Above 100°C (373K)

523

(3)

Precipitation Sequences in Other Aluminum Alloys

526

(2)

Homogenous versus Heterogeneous Nucleation of Precipitates

528

(1)

Interphase Precipitation

529

(3)

Theories of Hardening

532

(2)

Additional Factors in Precipitation Hardening

534

(4)

Problems

535

(3)

Deformation Twinning and Martensite Reactions

538

(50)

Deformation Twinning

538

(3)

Formal Crystallographic Theory of Twinning

541

(6)

Identification of Deformation Twins

547

(1)

Nucleation of Twins

548

(1)

Twin Boundaries

549

(2)

Twin Growth

551

(2)

Accommodation of the Twinning Shear

553

(1)

The Significance of Twinning in Plastic Deformation

554

(1)

The Theoretical Tensile Strain Due to Twinning of a Single Crystal

555

(1)

Deformation in Metals That Deform Primarily by Twinning

556

(1)

The Effect of Twinning on Face-Centered Cubic Stress-Strain Curves

556

(3)

The Beneficial Effect of Twinning on Both Ductility and Strength in F.C.C. Metals

559

(2)

Martensite

561

(2)

The Bain Distortion

563

(1)

The Martensite-site Transformation in an Indium-Thallium Alloy

564

(2)

Reversibility of the Martensite Transformation

566

(1)

Athermal Transformation

566

(1)

Wechsler, Lieberman, and Read Theory

567

(6)

Irrational Nature of the Habit Plane

573

(1)

Multiplicity of Habit Planes

574

(1)

Status of the Phenomenological Crystallographic Theory

574

(1)

The Iron-Nickel Martensitic Transformation

574

(2)

Isothermal Formation of Martensite

576

(1)

Stabilization

577

(1)

Nucleation of Martensite Plates

577

(2)

Growth of Martensite Plates

579

(1)

The Effect of Stress

579

(1)

The Effect of Plastic Deformation

580

(1)

Thermoelastic Martensite Transformations

580

(3)

Elastic Deformation of Thermoelastic Alloys

583

(1)

Stress-Induced Martensite

583

(1)

The Shape-Memory Effect

584

(4)

Problems

586

(2)

The Iron-Carbon Alloy System

588

(44)

The Iron-Carbon Diagram

588

(3)

The Proeutectoid Transformations of Austenite

591

(2)

The Transformation of Austenite to Pearlite

593

(6)

The Growth of Pearlite

599

(1)

The Effect of Temperature on the Pearlite Transformation

600

(2)

Forced-Velocity Growth of Pearlite

602

(4)

The Effects of Alloying Elements on the Growth of Pearlite

606

(3)

The Rate of Nucleation of Pearlite

609

(1)

Time-Temperature-Transformation Curves

610

(2)

The Bainite Reaction

612

(8)

The Complete TTT Diagram of an Eutectoid Steel

620

(2)

Slowly Cooled Hypoeutectoid Steels

622

(3)

Slowly Cooled Hypereutectoid Steels

625

(2)

Isothermal Transformation Diagrams for Noneutectoid Steels

627

(5)

Problems

630

(2)

The Hardening of Steel

632

(56)

Continuous Cooling Transformations

632

(3)

Hardenability

635

(6)

The Variables That Determine the Hardenability of a Steel

641

(1)

Austenitic Grain Size

642

(2)

The Effect of Austenitic Grain Size on Hardenability

644

(1)

The Influence of Carbon Content on Hardenability

644

(1)

The Influence of Alloying Elements on Hardenability

645

(5)

The Significance of Hardenability

650

(1)

The Martensite Transformation in Steel

651

(5)

The Hardness of Iron-Carbon Martensite

656

(4)

Dimensional Changes Associated with the Formation of Martensite

660

(1)

Quench Cracks

661

(3)

Tempering

664

(6)

Tempering of a Low-Carbon Steel

670

(3)

Spheroidized Cementite

673

(1)

The Effect of Tempering on Physical Properties

674

(3)

The Interrelation Between Time and Temperature in Tempering

677

(1)

Secondary Hardening

678

(1)

High-Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) Steels

679

(5)

Dual-Phase Steels

684

(1)

The Control of Nonmetallic Inclusions in HSLA Steels

684

(4)

Problems

685

(3)

Selected Nonferrous Alloy Systems

688

(37)

Commercially Pure Copper

688

(3)

Copper Alloys

691

(4)

Copper Beryllium

695

(2)

Other Copper Alloys

697

(1)

Aluminum Alloys

697

(1)

Aluminum-Lithium Alloys

698

(8)

Titanium Alloys

706

(7)

Classification of Titanium Alloys

713

(1)

The Alpha Alloys

713

(2)

The Beta Alloys

715

(1)

The Alpha-Beta Alloys

715

(3)

Superalloys

718

(3)

Creep Strength

721

(4)

Problems

722

(3)

Fracture

725

(47)

Failure by Easy Glide

725

(1)

Rupture by Necking (Multiple Glide)

726

(1)

The Effect of Twinning

727

(1)

Cleavage

728

(2)

The Nucleation of Cleavage Cracks

730

(2)

Propagation of Cleavage Cracks

732

(5)

The Effect of Grain Boundaries

737

(1)

The Effect of the State of Stress

738

(1)

Ductile Fractures

739

(7)

Intercrystalline Brittle Fracture

746

(1)

Blue Brittleness

747

(1)

Fatigue Failures

748

(1)

The Macroscopic Character of Fatigue Failure

748

(2)

The Rotating-Beam Fatigue Test

750

(2)

Alternating Stress Parameters

752

(3)

The Microscopic Aspects of Fatigue Failure

755

(5)

Fatigue Crack Growth

760

(2)

The Effect of Nonmetallic Inclusions

762

(1)

The Effect of Steel Microstructure on Fatigue

763

(1)

Low-Cycle Fatigue

764

(4)

The Coffin-Manson Equation

768

(2)

Certain Practical Aspects of Fatigue

770

(2)

Problems

770

(2)

Fracture Mechanics

772

(64)

Fracture Mechanics

772

(1)

Fracture in Glass

772

(3)

The Griffith Theory

775

(2)

Griffith Cracks in Glass

777

(1)

Crack Velocities

777

(1)

The Griffith Equation

778

(1)

The Griffith Equation in Relation to Polycrystalline Metal

779

(2)

The Primary Modes of Fracture

781

(3)

The Crack Extension and Resistance Forces

784

(1)

Crack Growth Under Fixed Grips Versus Growth Under Constant Load

785

(2)

The Griffith Equation for Plane-Strain Crack Growth

787

(1)

The Stress Field of a Crack

787

(2)

The Stress Intensity Factor

789

(1)

Relation of the Stress Intensity Factor to the Crack Extension Force

789

(1)

The Crack Flank Displacement Equation

790

(1)

Fracture in Metals

791

(1)

The Plastic Constraint Factor

792

(1)

The Plastic Zone Size Ahead of a Crack

792

(3)

The Effect of Plate Thickness on Fracture Toughness

795

(1)

The Effect of a Finite Specimen Width on the Stress Intensity Factor

796

(1)

The ASTM Plane Strain Fracture Mechanics Tests

797

(1)

Dimensional Restrictions on the ASTM Plane Strain Fracture Test Specimens

798

(5)

The R Curve

803

(1)

Plane Stress R Curves

804

(2)

R Curve Determinations

806

(2)

The Invariance of the R Curve with Respect to the Initial Crack Length

808

(1)

The Through Thickness Yielding Criterion

808

(1)

General Yielding

808

(1)

Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics

809

(1)

The Rate of Energy Release

810

(1)

The Compliance as a Means of Determining Stress Intensity Factors

811

(3)

The J Integral

814

(3)

The Crack Opening Displacement

817

(2)

Fatigue Crack Growth

819

(4)

Stress Corrosion

823

(1)

The Crack Growth Rate Dependence on K in Stress Corrosion Cracking

824

(1)

Slow Strain Rate Embrittlement

825

(3)

The Impact Test

828

(2)

The Significance of the Impact Test

830

(2)

Conclusion Concerning the Impact Test

832

(1)

Temper Brittleness

833

(3)

Problems

834

(2)

Thermally Activated Plastic Deformation

836

(64)

The Dual Nature of the Flow Stress

836

(1)

The Nature of the Flow Stress Components

837

(1)

The Effect of Alloying on the Flow Stress Components

838

(2)

The Relative Roles of the flow Stress Components in Face-Centered Cubic and Body-Centered Cubic Metals

840

(2)

Superplasticity

842

(2)

The Nature of the Time Dependent Strain

844

(5)

Creep Mechanisms

849

(10)

An Alternative Activation Energy Expression for the Strain-Rate Equation

859

(3)

Creep When More Than One Mechanism Is Operating

862

(5)

Another View of the Rate Controlling Mechanism

867

(1)

Experimental Determination of the Activation Volume and the Activation Energy Using Stress-Strain Data

867

(1)

Grain-Boundary Shear

868

(2)

Intercrystalline Fracture

870

(4)

Grain-Boundary Cavities and Creep Embrittlement

874

(1)

Cavity Growth During Creep

875

(4)

Cavity Nucleation During Creep

879

(2)

The Creep Curve

881

(4)

Dynamic Annealing

885

(1)

Cyclic or Periodic Creep

885

(1)

Dynamic Annealing in Relation to Hot Working

886

(3)

A Theory of the Stress-Strain Curve Involving Dynamic Recovery

889

(2)

Practical Applications of Creep Data

891

(3)

Creep-Resistant Alloys

894

(2)

Alloy Systems

896

(4)

Problems

897

(3)

Appendices

900

(12)

A Angles Between Crystallographic Planes in the Cubic System

900

(2)

B Angles Between Crystallographic Planes for Hexagonal Elements

902

(1)

C Indices of the Reflecting Planes for Cubic Structures

903

(1)

D Conversion Factors and Constants

903

(1)

E Twinning Elements of Several of the More Important Twinning Modes

904

(1)

F Selected Values of Intrinsic Stacking-Fault Energy γI, Twin-Boundary Energy γT, Grain-Boundary Energy γG, and Crystal-Vapor Surface Energy γ for Various Materials in Ergs/Cm2

904

(1)

G The International System of Units

905

(7)

List of Important Symbols

912

(2)

List of Greek Letter Symbols

914

(1)

Index

915

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Physical Metallurgy Principles

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials