Physical Principles of Food Preservation: Revised and Expanded

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ISBN: 9780824740634 | 0824740637
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 6/20/2003

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This reference examines the properties, conditions, and theoretical principles governing the safety and efficacy of various food preservation, storage, and packaging techniques. The book analyzes methods to predict and optimize the nutrition, texture, and quality of food compounds while reducing operating cost and waste. The Second Edition contains new chapters and discussions on non-thermal processes; the mechanisms of heat transfer, including conduction, convection, radiation, and dielectric and microwave heating; the kinetic parameters of food process operations; freezing technology, using illustrative examples; recent breakthroughs in cryochemistry and cryobiology, and more.

Foreword

Preface to the Second Edition

vii

Preface to the First Edition

PART I. PRINCIPLES

1. Thermodynamics

(27)

I. Introduction

(1)

II. Thermodynamic Fundamentals

(8)

A. Definition of Systems

(1)

B. First Law of Thermodynamics

(3)

C. Second Law of Thermodynamics

(1)

D. Thermodynamic Potential: Gibbs Free Energy

(3)

III. Solution Properties

(6)

A. Partial Molar Quantities

(1)

B. Chemical Potential

(1)

C. Ideal Mixtures

(3)

D. Nonideal Mixtures

(1)

IV. Phase Equilibria

(7)

A. Liquid-Vapor Equilibria

(1)

B. Solid-Liquid Equilibria

(1)

C. Solid-Vapor Equilibria

(1)

D. Phase Rule

(1)

E. Pressure-Composition Diagram

(2)

V. Colligative Properties

(4)

A. Vapor Pressure Lowering

(1)

B. Boiling Point Elevation

(1)

C. Freezing Point Depression

(1)

D. Osmotic Pressure

(1)

Symbols

(1)

References

(1)

2. Reaction Kinetics

(22)

I. Introduction

(1)

II. General Considerations

(3)

A. Concept of Rate-Limiting Step

(1)

B. Basic Chemical Kinetics

(1)

C. Order of Reaction

(1)

III. First-Order Rate Processes

(3)

IV. Determining Kinetic Parameters

(6)

A. General Considerations

(3)

B. Differential Methods

(1)

C. Integral Methods

(1)

D. Accuracy of Rate Constants

(1)

V. Temperature Dependence of Reaction Kinetics

(2)

A. Arrhenius Model

(1)

B. Thermal Death Time Model

(1)

C. Q10 Model

(1)

VI. Kinetic Parameter Values Important in Food Processing

(2)

VII. Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions

(3)

A. Introduction

(1)

B. Michaelis-Menten Analysis

(3)

VIII. Summary

(1)

References

(1)

3. Heat Transfer in Food

(42)

I. Introduction

(1)

II. Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

(19)

A. Conduction

(2)

B. Convection

(5)

C. Radiation

(3)

D. Dielectric and Microwave Heating

(2)

III. Steady-State Heat Transfer

(6)

A. Conduction Heat Transfer in Series

(3)

B. Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient

(1)

C. Free or Natural Convection

(1)

D. Forced Convection

(1)

IV. Unsteady-State Heat Transfer

(14)

A. General Principles

(4)

B. Unaccomplished Temperature Change

(1)

C. Generalized Solution for Unsteady-State Heat Transfer

(2)

D. Negligible Internal Resistance to Heat Transfer (Well-Mixed Fluid) (Bi less than 0.1) 82

E. Finite Internal Resistance to Heat Transfer (Bi > 0.1)

(4)

F. Example

(2)

G. Finite Objects

(1)

H. Other Conditions

(1)

Symbols

(1)

References

(1)

4. Mass Transfer in Food Preservation Processes

(25)

I. Introduction

(1)

II. Phase Equilibria

(8)

A. The Phase Rule

(1)

B. Gas-Liquid Equilibria

(2)

C. Solutions

(1)

D. Representation of Equilibrium Relationships for Binary Systems with Two Volatile Components

(2)

E. Colligative Properties Related to Vapor Pressure

(1)

F. Liquid-Liquid Equilibria

(1)

G. Gas-Solid Equilibria

(2)

III. Mass Transfer Between Phases

101

(13)

A. Interface Between Phases

101

(1)

B. Diffusion Within a Homogeneous Phase

102

(6)

C. Nonideal Diffusion Behavior

108

(3)

D. Film Coefficients for Mass Transfer

111

(2)

E. Transport in Porous Solids

113

(1)

F. Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer

114

(1)

Symbols

114

(1)

References

115

(2)

5. Water Activity and Food Preservation

117

(53)

I. Introduction

117

(1)

II. Water Activity

118

(2)

III. Sorption of Water by Foods

120

(4)

IV. Indicators of the State of Water in Foods

124

(2)

V. Causes of Water Vapor Depression in Foods

126

(4)

VI. Sorption Hysteresis

130

(4)

VII. Water Activity of Mixtures

134

(2)

VIII. Water and Glass Transitions in Food Materials

136

(6)

IX. Overview of Effects of Water Activity on Shelf Life of Foods

142

(1)

X. Water Activity and Physical Changes in Foods

143

(9)

XI. Effects of Water on Microbial Growth

152

(4)

XII. Water and Chemical Reactions in Foods

156

(10)

Symbols

166

(1)

References

167

(3)

PART II. PRESERVATION PROCESSES

6. Heat Processing

170

(67)

I. Introduction

170

(1)

II. Application of Heat Energy to Foods

170

(8)

A. Cooking

171

(1)

B. Blanching

171

(2)

C. Pasteurization

173

(1)

D. Sterilization

174

(4)

III. Interaction of Heat Energy and Food Components

178

(19)

A. Introduction

178

(1)

B. Reaction Kinetics

179

(1)

C. Temperature Dependence on Kinetics

180

(4)

D. Thermal Destruction of Microorganisms

184

(7)

E. Thermal Destruction of Enzymes

191

(1)

F. Thermal Destruction of Nutrients and Quality Factors

192

(5)

IV. Heat Penetration into Foods

197

(6)

A. Introduction

197

(1)

B. Determination of Time-Temperature Profile for Thermal Process Calculations

198

(1)

C. Evaluation of Heat Penetration Data

199

(4)

V. Methods of Determining Lethality of Thermal Processes

203

(16)

A. Introduction

203

(1)

B. Improved General Method

204

(3)

C. Formula Method

207

(7)

D. Aseptic Processing

214

(5)

VI. Process Application

219

(14)

A. Optimization of Thermal Processes for Nutrient Retention

220

(3)

B. Process Equipment

223

(10)

Symbols

233

(1)

References

234

(3)

7. Storage at Chilling Temperatures

237

(39)

I. Introduction

237

(1)

II. Considerations

238

(21)

A. Normal Behavior of Food Stored at Chilling Temperatures

238

(4)

B. Causes of Quality Loss

242

(2)

C. Temperature

244

(8)

D. Relative Humidity

252

(1)

E. Air Circulation and Purification

252

(1)

F. Adjuncts to Chilling Temperature

252

(7)

G. Summary of Product Characteristics That Influence Conditions Selected for Chilling Storage

259

(1)

III. Applications and Procedures

259

(17)

A. Precooling

259

(2)

B. Conditions Recommended for Storage of Food in Ordinary Air at Chilling Temperatures

261

(2)

C. Conditions Recommended for Storage of Food in Chilled Atmospheres of Modified Composition

263

(10)

D. Handling of Food Following Removal from Chilling Storage

273

(1)

References

273

(3)

8. Freezing

276

(54)

I. Introduction

276

(1)

A. Objectives of Freezing of Foods

276

(1)

B. Size of the Food Industry

277

(1)

II. Physicochemical Principles of the Freezing Process

277

(20)

A. Introduction

277

(1)

B. Water and Ice

278

(5)

C. Nucleation in Pure Water

283

(4)

D. Freezing Point Depression in Solutions, Biological Systems, and Foods

287

(5)

E. Crystal Growth

292

(1)

F. Recrystallization

293

(4)

III. Glassy State and Preservation by Freezing

297

(3)

IV. Biological Aspects of Freezing

300

(7)

A. Cryopreservation of Cells and Other Biomaterials

300

(4)

B. Biological Ice Nucleation

304

(1)

C. Antifreeze Proteins

305

(2)

V. Freezing Technology

307

(7)

A. Air Freezers

308

(1)

B. Indirect Contact Freezers

309

(2)

C. Immersion Freezing

311

(1)

D. Cryogenic Freezing

311

(1)

E. High Pressure Applications in Freezing Technology

312

(2)

VI. Design Calculations

314

(8)

A. Heat to Be Removed

315

(1)

B. Calculation of Freezing Time

315

(2)

C. Illustrative Examples

317

(5)

VII. Effects of Freezing, Storage, and Thawing on Food Properties

322

(5)

A. Effects of Freezing

323

(1)

B. Effects of Storage in the Frozen State

324

(2)

C. Effects of Thawing

326

(1)

Symbols

327

(1)

References

327

(3)

9. Concentration

330

(48)

I. Introduction

330

(1)

II. Evaporation

331

(24)

A. Principles of Evaporator Operation

331

(2)

B. Boiling Point Estimation

333

(1)

C. Food Properties and Evaporator Performance

334

(3)

D. Types of Evaporators

337

(5)

E. Evaporation with Feed Preheating

342

(1)

F. Multiple-Effect Evaporators

343

(2)

G. Evaporators with Vapor Recompression

345

(4)

H. Principles of Operation of Equipment Used in Evaporators

349

(5)

I. Examples of Evaporator Systems in Industry

354

(1)

III. Freeze Concentration

355

(9)

A. Introduction

355

(1)

B. Principle of the Process

355

(3)

C. Freeze Concentration and Freeze Desalination

358

(1)

D. Principles of Equipment Used in Freeze Concentration

358

(2)

E. Normal Freezing

360

(3)

F. Problems Caused by Precipitation of Solids Other than Ice

363

(1)

G. Concentration by Gas Hydrate Formation

363

(1)

H. Applications in the Food Industry

364

(1)

IV. Membrane Processes for Concentration

364

(10)

A. Introduction

364

(1)

B. Driving Forces for Membrane Processes

365

(2)

C. Membranes

367

(3)

D. Reverse Osmosis

370

(1)

E. Applications of Reverse Osmosis

371

(1)

F. Ultrafiltration

372

(1)

G. Electroosmosis

373

(1)

H. Thermoosmosis and Pervaporation

374

(1)

V. Cost of Food Concentration

374

(1)

Symbols

375

(2)

References

377

(1)

10. Dehydration

378

(83)

I. Introduction

378

(1)

II. Principles of Dehydration Processes

379

(10)

A. Introduction

379

(1)

B. Equilibrium Relations in Air-Water Mixtures

379

(3)

C. Humidity Charts

382

(3)

D. Energy and Material Balance on an Air Dryer

385

(1)

E. Transport of Water in Foods

386

(3)

III. Air-Drying of a Slab Under Constant Conditions

389

(13)

A. Idealized Mechanisms of Drying of a Slab

389

(6)

B. Calculation of Drying Rates Using Experimental Results

395

(3)

C. Characteristics and Significance of the Slab Model

398

(1)

D. Shrinkage During Drying

399

(3)

IV. Drying Technology

402

(27)

A. Introduction

402

(1)

B. Classification of Drying Processes

403

(1)

C. Convective Dryers

403

(10)

D. Flash Dryers and Fluidized Bed Dryers

413

(4)

E. Spray Drying

417

(7)

F. Drum Dryers

424

(3)

G. Infrared and Solar Dryers

427

(2)

V. Freeze-Drying

429

(15)

A. Introduction

429

(2)

B. Heat and Mass Transfer in Freeze-Drying

431

(13)

VI. Quality Aspects of Dehydrated Materials

444

(12)

A. Changes Due to Chemical Reactions Occurring During Drying

446

(5)

B. Retention of Volatile Organic Compounds-Flavor Compounds

451

(5)

Symbols

456

(1)

References

457

(4)

11. Nonthermal Methods

461

(53)

I. Nonthermal Physical Processes for Food Preservation

461

(1)

II. Radiation Preservation of Foods

462

(27)

A. Introduction

462

(1)

B. Properties of Ionizing Radiations

463

(5)

C. Dosimetry of Ionizing Radiations

468

(3)

D. Chemical Effects of Ionizing Radiations

471

(1)

E. Effects of Radiation on Living Organisms

472

(4)

F. Technological Aspects of Food Irradiation

476

(9)

G. Organoleptic Acceptability and Safety of Irradiated Foods

485

(3)

H. Status of Commercial Application of Food Irradiation

488

(1)

III. High-Pressure Processing

489

(8)

A. Principles

489

(1)

B. Physicochemical Effects of Pressure

490

(1)

C. Effects of High Pressure on Living Systems

491

(3)

D. Technological Aspects of HPP

494

(3)

IV. High-Intensity Pulsed Electric Fields (PEF)

497

(6)

A. Principles

497

(2)

B. Effects of PEF on Microorganisms

499

(3)

C. Applications to Food Products

502

(1)

V. High-Voltage Arc Discharge

503

(1)

VI. Ultraviolet Light

503

(2)

A. Effects of Ultraviolet Light on Biological Systems

503

(1)

B. Applications and Considerations in Process Control and Validation

504

(1)

VII. Pulsed-Light Technology

505

(2)

VIII. Oscillating Magnetic Fields (OMF)

507

(1)

IX. Ultrasound

A. Applications of Ultrasound in Food Technology

508

(1)

B. Mechanism of Inactivation of Microorganisms by Ultrasound

509

(1)

C. Application of Ultrasound in Combination with Heating

510

(1)

X. Status and Prospects of Nonthermal Food Preservation Processes

510

(1)

Symbols

511

(1)

References

512

(2)

12. Protective Packaging

514

(79)

I. Protection of Product as a Major Function of Packaging

514

(3)

A. Functions of Packaging

514

(1)

B. Protective Packaging

515

(2)

II. Nature of Packaging Materials

517

(11)

A. Glass

517

(2)

B. Metals

519

(4)

C. Paper

523

(1)

D. Plastics

523

(3)

E. Biodegradable and Edible Films and Coatings

526

(1)

F. Combinations

527

(1)

III. Effect of Environment on Food Stability and the Need for Protective Packaging

528

(7)

A. Light

528

(1)

B. Oxygen

529

(4)

C. Water

533

(1)

D. Temperature

534

(1)

E. Sensitivity to Mechanical Damage

534

(1)

F. Sensitivity to Attack by Biological Agents

534

(1)

IV. Properties of Materials That Determine the Degree of Protection Against Environmental Factors

535

(35)

A. Light-Protection Characteristics

535

(2)

B. Permeability to Gases and Vapors

537

(24)

C. Temperature Control by Packaging

561

(1)

D. Control of Biological Attack by Packaging

562

(1)

E. Protection from Mechanical Damage

563

(7)

V. Calculation of Shelf Life and of Requirements for Packaging

570

(14)

A. General Approach

570

(2)

B. Analysis of Storage Requirement of Moisture-Sensitive Foods

572

(4)

C. Accelerated Storage Stability Testing

576

(2)

D. Packaging Requirements of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables

578

(4)

E. Oxygen-Sensitive Foods

582

(2)

VI. Interaction Between Product and Package

584

(3)

A. Extraction of Packaging Material Components

584

(1)

B. Active Packaging

585

(2)

Symbols

587

(1)

References

588

(5)

Index

593

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Physical Principles of Food Preservation: Revised and Expanded

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

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Physical Principles of Food Preservation: Revised and Expanded

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Table of Contents

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