Physical Vapor Deposition of Thin Films

, by Mahan, John E.

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ISBN: 9780471330011 | 0471330019
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 2/1/2000

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Summary

Author Biography

Supplemental Materials

* Quantitative models for film deposition rate, thickness profiles, and thermalization of the sputtered beam

Preface

Introduction to Physical Vapor Deposition

(18)

Physical Vapor Deposition Technologies and Their Basic Physical Science

(15)

Overview

(4)

Kinetic Theory

(3)

Adsorption and Condensation

(4)

High Vacuum

(2)

Sputtering Discharges

(2)

Summary of Principal Equations

(1)

Mathematical Symbols, Constants, and Their Units

(2)

Reference

(1)

The Kinetic Theory of Gases

(26)

Statistics

(3)

The Boltzmann Distribution

(2)

Characteristic Particle Speeds

(1)

Collisions

(7)

Impingement Rate and Incident Flux Angular Distribution

(3)

The Ideal Gas Law

(1)

Mean Free Path

(3)

Properties

(4)

Heat Capacity; the Ideal Diatomic Gas

(1)

Diffusivity

(1)

Viscosity

(2)

Thermal Conductivity

(1)

Gas Flow

(4)

Flow Regimes

(1)

Viscous Laminar Flow

(1)

Molecular Flow

(1)

Conductance

(1)

Units of Pressure and Amounts of Gas

(1)

Units of Pressure

(1)

Amounts of Gas

(1)

Summary of Principal Equations

(1)

Appendix

(3)

Arrhenius Plots

(1)

Some Definite Integrals

(1)

Atomic Diameters of the Elements

(1)

Mathematical Symbols, Constants, and Their Units

(2)

References

(1)

Adsorption and Condensation

(38)

Adsorption of Gases

(10)

Why Gases Adsorb

(2)

Mean Residence Time

(1)

Langmuir's Adsorption Isotherm

(4)

Atomic Layer Epitaxy

(4)

Vapor Pressure

(5)

The Thermally Activated Vapor Pressure

(1)

Vapor Pressure Data for the Elements

(2)

Vapor Pressures of Alloys and Compounds

(2)

Condensation of Vapors

(9)

Condensation of Pure Elements

(2)

Condensation of Compounds that Produce a Stoichiometric Vapor

(1)

Flash Evaporation of Compounds that Dissociate

(1)

Steady-State Techniques for Alloy Films

(2)

Coevaporation with the Three-Temperature Method

(3)

Reactive Evaporation and Sputtering

(1)

Summary of Principal Equations

(1)

Appendix: Thermodynamic Fundamentals

(7)

The Thermodynamic Potentials and the First and Second Laws

(1)

The Gibbs Free Energy: The Relevant Potential for Equilibria at Fixed Temperature and Pressure

(1)

Standard Reaction and Formation Quantities, and the Equilibrium Constant

(2)

Standard Thermochemical Data

(3)

Mathematical Symbols, Constants, and Their Units

(4)

References

(3)

Principles of High Vacuum

(32)

Basic Vacuum Concepts

(10)

Pumping Speed

(3)

Throughput

(1)

A Throughput Law

(5)

Conductance

(1)

Behavior of Real Vacuum Systems

(5)

A More Realistic Vacuum System Model

(2)

Desorption, Outgassing, and Permeation

(3)

Operation Principles of Vacuum Pumps and Gauges

(8)

How Seven Important Pumps Work

(6)

Two Vacuum Gauges in Widespread Use: The Thermocouple and Ionization Gauges

105

(2)

Summary of Principal Equations

107

(1)

Appendix

107

(5)

How to Draw and Analyze Vacuum Schematic Diagrams

107

(1)

An Electrical Network Analogy

108

(3)

A Survey of Past Definitions of Throughput

111

(1)

Mathematical Symbols, Constants, and Their Units

112

(3)

References

112

(3)

Evaporation Sources

115

(38)

The Effusion Cell and Nozzle-Jet Evaporation Sources

117

(10)

The Ideal Effusion Cell

117

(1)

The Cosine Law of Emission

118

(1)

The Nonequilibrium Effusion Cell

119

(2)

The Near-Ideal Effusion Cell

121

(2)

The Open-Tube Effusion Cell

123

(1)

The Conical Effusion Cell

124

(1)

The Nozzle-Jet Source

125

(2)

Free Evaporation Sources

127

(6)

Free Evaporation

127

(2)

The Ideal Point Source Model

129

(1)

How E-Gun Evaporators Work

129

(2)

Beam Intensity of the E-Gun Evaporator

131

(2)

Pulsed Laser Deposition

133

(10)

Laser-Induced Vaporization

133

(2)

A Simple Heating Model

135

(6)

Other Phenomena

141

(2)

Materials Aspects of Evaporation Sources

143

(4)

Evaporation Temperatures of the Elements

143

(1)

The Problem of Composition Change in the Evaporation of Alloys

144

(2)

Crucible Interactions

146

(1)

Summary of Principal Equations

147

(1)

Mathematical Symbols, Constants, and Their Units

148

(5)

References

149

(4)

Principles of Sputtering Discharges

153

(46)

Sputtering Arrangements

155

(4)

DC Sputtering

155

(1)

RF Sputtering

156

(1)

The Magnetron

157

(1)

Other Sputtering Arrangements

158

(1)

A Practical Sputtering Plasma and its Current Densities and Potentials

159

(11)

A Practical Sputtering Plasma

159

(2)

The Ideal Langmuir Probe

161

(4)

An Experimental Langmuir Probe Characteristic

165

(1)

The Enhanced Ion Current Density

165

(3)

The Probe Sheath

168

(2)

Gaseous Discharges for Sputtering

170

(13)

A DC Discharge Model

170

(4)

The Cathode and Anode Sheaths

174

(2)

The Sputtering Projectiles that Bombard the Cathode

176

(2)

An RF Discharge Model

178

(4)

The RF Sheaths

182

(1)

Summary of Principal Equations

183

(1)

Appendix

184

(11)

The Voltage--Current Characteristic of a DC Discharge

184

(5)

The Voltage--Current Characteristic of an RF Discharge

189

(1)

The DC Glow

190

(3)

The RF Glow

193

(1)

Exceptions to the Above

193

(2)

Mathematical Symbols, Constants, and Their Units

195

(4)

References

196

(3)

Sputtering

199

(66)

General Characteristics and Background

199

(7)

Definition of Sputtering

199

(2)

The Mechanisms of Sputtering

201

(2)

A Brief History of Sputtering Theory and Simulation

203

(2)

Sources of Sputter Yield Data

205

(1)

Trends in Sputter Yield Data

206

(17)

Projectile Energy Dependence

207

(5)

Dependence on Surface Binding Energy

212

(2)

Dependence on Choice of Projectile

214

(1)

Effect of Angle of Incidence

214

(5)

Energy Distribution of Sputtered Particles

219

(1)

Angular Distribution of Sputtered Particles

220

(2)

Single-Crystal Targets

222

(1)

Target Conditioning and Dose Effects

222

(1)

Basic Concepts for Modeling

223

(15)

The Surface Binding Energy

223

(2)

Energy Transfer in Binary Elastic Collisions of Hard Spheres

225

(2)

Threshold Energy for Sputtering at Normal Incidence

227

(2)

Nuclear Energy Loss Theory

229

(3)

Linear Cascade Theory

232

(6)

A Simplified Collisional Model for Sputter Yield

238

(7)

A Yield Expression

238

(3)

Predictions

241

(3)

Summary

244

(1)

An Ideal Sputter Deposition Source

245

(5)

The Cosine Law of Emission

245

(2)

The Beam Intensity of a Sputtering Source

247

(1)

Combined Internal Flux Spectra for the Simplified Collisional Model

248

(1)

Combined External Spectra Assuming the Spherical Surface Binding Model

248

(1)

Combined External Spectra Assuming the Planar Surface Binding Model

249

(1)

Summary of Principal Equations Not Found in the Sample Calculation of Yield

250

(1)

Appendixes

251

(8)

The Empirical Yield Formula of Matsunami et al. [1984]

251

(1)

A Summary of Target Parameters

252

(4)

Some Collisional Sputtering Theories

256

(2)

A Sample Calculation of Yield with the Simplified Collisional Model

258

(1)

Mathematical Symbols, Constants, and Their Units

259

(6)

References

260

(5)

Film Deposition

265

(40)

Incident Flux and Film Deposition Rate

267

(10)

The Incident Flux at the Substrate

267

(2)

Film Deposition Rate

269

(3)

Associated Substrate Heating Mechanisms

272

(5)

Film Thickness Profiles of the Ideal Small Source

277

(4)

Three Fundamental Receiving Surfaces

277

(1)

The Moving-Shutter Technique

278

(3)

Thermalization and Ionization of the Sputtered Beam

281

(8)

The Thermalization Distance

283

(1)

Reduction of the Incident Flux

283

(3)

Ionized Physical Vapor Deposition

286

(3)

Deposition with Substrate Rotation and with Ideal Large Sources

289

(6)

Off-Axis Substrate Rotation

290

(1)

A Large Disk Source with a Planar Substrate

291

(2)

A Large Ring Source

293

(2)

Deposition Monitors

295

(5)

The Quartz Crystal Microbalance

295

(3)

True Flux Sensors

298

(2)

Summary of Principal Equations

300

(1)

Appendix: Some Definite Integrals

300

(1)

Mathematical Symbols, Constants, and Their Units

301

(4)

References

302

(3)

Index

305

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Physical Vapor Deposition of Thin Films

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials