Physics Of Radiology

Anthony Brinton Wolbarst, Ph.D.: Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, DC

Preface

ix

Acknowledgments

xi

Chapter Coauthors

xiii

I. INTRODUCTION

Introduction to Medical Imaging

1

(8)

Sketches of the Imaging Modalities

9

(12)

X-Ray Imaging I: Overview of Film Radiography

21

(24)

Appendix: The Role of Medical Physics in an Imaging Department

38

(7)

II. SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL BASIS

Radiation and Matter

Mass, Motion, and Force

45

(11)

Appendix: Functions

53

(3)

Electric Fields and Accelerating Electrons

56

(7)

Magnetic Fields and Electromagnetic Waves

63

(10)

Appendix: Periodic Functions

69

(4)

The Inviolate Rule of Energy Conservation

73

(9)

Atoms and Photons

82

(11)

Matter: Gases and Liquids, Metals, Superconductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors

93

(10)

Resistors, Transistors, and All That: An Introduction to Electronic Circuits

103

(11)

Appendix: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

110

(4)

Scientific Foundations for the Various Modalities

Ultrasound Imaging I: Reflections of Acoustic Waves in Elastic Tissues

114

(14)

Magnetic Resonance Imaging I: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance of Stable Hydrogen Nuclei in the Water Molecules of Tissues

128

(11)

Gamma Ray Imaging I: Harnessing Radioactive Decay

139

(13)

Appendix: Derivatives of Functions

148

(4)

X-Ray Imaging II: Interaction of High-Energy Photons with Atomic Electrons

152

(22)

Appendix: Probability

171

(3)

Radiation Dose I: The Detection and Quantification of Ionizing Radiation

174

(16)

X-Ray Imaging III: Mapping Images on Film

190

(7)

A Synthesis: Radioactive Decay, X-Ray Beam Attenuation, Nuclear Spin Relaxation, Cell Killing with Radiation, and Other Poisson Processes

197

(7)

Analog and Digital Image Information

Image Quality: Contrast, Resolution, and Noise---Primary Determinants of the Diagnostic Utility of an Image

204

(12)

Appendix: Statistics

212

(4)

Measures of Image Quality and of Imaging System Capabilities: MTF, LSF, DQE, ETC

216

(14)

The Psychophysics of Optical Images

230

(12)

Vacuum Tube and Solid-State Optical Cameras and Displays

242

(11)

Digital Representation of an Image

253

(18)

Appendix: Computer Basics and a Bit about Bytes

266

(5)

PACS, IMACS, and the Integrated Digital Department

271

(8)

III. ANALOG RADIOGRAPHIC AND FLUOROSCOPIC IMAGING

X-Ray Imaging IV: Creation of an X-Ray Beam

The Nuts and Bolts of Generators

279

(7)

Design of an X-Ray Tube

286

(11)

Transforming Electron Kinetic Energy into Bremsstrahlung and Characteristic X-Ray Energy

297

(8)

X-Ray Imaging V: Capturing the X-Ray Image on Film

Creating the Primary X-Ray Image within the Body

305

(6)

Scatter Radiation, Grids, Gaps, and Contrast

311

(9)

Capturing the Primary X-Ray Image with Cassette and Film

320

(13)

Resolution and Magnification

333

(8)

Optimal Technique Factors

341

(5)

Radiographic Quality Assurance

346

(6)

Screen-Film Mammography

352

(14)

Some Infrequently Used Screen-Film Techniques

366

(5)

X-Ray Imaging VI: Fluoroscopy

Following Time-Dependent Processes with Fluoroscopy

371

(14)

IV. DIGITAL IMAGING

X-Ray Imaging VII: Digital X-Ray Imaging

Digital Radiography, Computed Radiography, and Flat-Panel X-Ray Technology

385

(7)

Digital Fluoroscopy and Digital Subtraction Angiography

392

(7)

Computed Tomography I: Creating a Map of CT Numbers

399

(9)

Computed Tomography II: Image Reconstruction, Image Quality, and Dose

408

(8)

Computed Tomography III: Spiral and Multi-Slice Scanning

416

(6)

Gamma Ray Imaging

Gamma Ray Imaging II: Radiopharmaceuticals

422

(11)

Appendix: Radioactive Transformations

427

(6)

Gamma Ray Imaging III: Image Production, Image Quality, and Dose

433

(9)

Gamma Ray Imaging IV: Nuclear Cardiology, SPECT, and PET

442

(8)

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Magnetic Resonance Imaging II: The Classical View of NMR

450

(10)

Magnetic Resonance Imaging III: Relaxation Times (T1 and T2), Pulse Sequences, and Contrast

460

(11)

Magnetic Resonance Imaging IV: Image Reconstruction and Image Quality

471

(12)

Magnetic Resonance Imaging V: Fast, Flow, and Functional Imaging

483

(5)

Magnetic Resonance Imaging VI: Biological Effects and Safety

488

(2)

Ultrasound Imaging

Ultrasound Imaging II: Creating the Beam

490

(6)

Ultrasound Imaging III: Image Production and Image Quality

496

(12)

Ultrasound Imaging IV: Biological Effects and Safety

508

(3)

Experimental and Future Imaging Technologies

Evolving and Experimental Technologies in Medical Imaging

511

(14)

V. RADIATION DOSE, BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS, RISK, AND RADIATION SAFETY

Ionizing Radiation Dose, Biological Effects, and Risk

Radiation Dose II: Determining Organ Doses from Exposure Measurements

525

(6)

Radiation Dose III: The Tissue f-Factor, Tissue-Air Ratios, etc

531

(7)

Radiation Dose IV: Radiobiological Processes and Radiogenic Health Effects

538

(12)

Radiation Dose V: Probabilities of Occurrence of Stochastic Health Effects

550

(10)

Appendix: On Talking with People about Radiation (and Other) Risks

558

(2)

Radiation Oncology, and the Role of Imaging in Treatment Planning

560

(10)

Radiation Safety and Emergency Response

Practical Radiation Safety for Ionizing Radiation

570

(7)

Rems, Risks, and Regs: The Legal Basis for Radiation Protection Standards

577

(10)

Response to a Major Radiological Emergency

587

(16)

Solutions to the Exercises

603

(14)

References

617

(6)

Some Symbols and Units

623

(2)

Index

625

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