Plant Pathology

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ISBN: 9780120445653 | 0120445654
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 12/27/2004

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This would be the Fifth Edition of Agrios' classic and comprehensive text providing exhaustive pedagogical coverage of fungal, viral, bacterial, nematode and other plant diseases, and their associated epidemiology. It also covers the genetics of resistance and modern management of plant disease. This book continues to be the most exhaustive textbook and the complete resource that students, faculty, and professionals turn to when in need of well-organized, essential information regarding the pathology of plants. The chapters will be revised to cover the explosive growth of knowledge in plant pathology that continues to accumulate. This Fifth Edition of Plant Pathology is certain to remain the book of choice when faculty in plant pathology, botany, forestry, crop science, and other agricultural departments teach the subject. In its English editions or in its translations in several languages, Agrios' Plant Pathology, Fifth Edition is the worldwide standard for teaching plant pathology. * The latest information on molecular techniques and biological control in plant diseases* Comprehensive in coverage * Numerous excellent diagrams and photographs * A large variety of disease examples for instructors to choose for their course

Preface

xix

Photo credits

xxi

About the Author

xxiii

part one GENERAL ASPECTS

Introduction

Prologue: The Issues

(1)

Plants and Disease

(4)

The Concept of Disease in Plants

(2)

Types of Plant Diseases

(1)

History of Plant Pathology and Early Significant Plant Diseases

(21)

Introduction

(1)

Plant Diseases as the Wrath of Gods --- Theophrastus

(5)

Mistletoe Recognized as the First Plant Pathogen

(2)

Plant Diseases as the Result of Spontaneous Generation

(1)

Biology and Plant Pathology in Early Renaissance

(3)

Potato Blight --- Deadly Mix of Ignorance and Politics

(2)

The Expanding Role of Fungi as Causes of Plant Disease

(2)

The Discovery of the Other Causes of Infectious Diseases

(1)

Nematodes --- Protozoan Myxomycetes --- Bacteria --- Viruses. Protozoa --- Mollicutes --- Viroids --- Serious Plant Diseases of Unknown Etiology

(3)

Koch's Postulates

(1)

Viruses, Viroids, and Prions

(2)

Losses Caused by Plant Diseases

(16)

Plant diseases reduce the quantity and quality of plant produce

(1)

White, Downey, and Dry Vineyards --- Bring on the Bordeaux!

(2)

Plant diseases may limit the kinds of plants and industries in an area

(1)

Chestnuts, Elms, and Coconut Palm Trees --- Where have they gone?

(5)

Plant diseases may make plants poisonous to humans and animals

(1)

Ergot, Ergotism, and LSD: a Bad Combination

(2)

Mycotoxins and Mycotoxicoses

(2)

Plant diseases may cause financial losses

(1)

The Insect --- Pathogen Connection: Multifaceted and Important

(3)

Plant Pathology in the 20th Century

(9)

Early Developments

(1)

The Descriptive Phase

(1)

The Experimental Phase

(1)

The Etiological Phase

(1)

The Search for Control of Plant Diseases

(1)

The Main Areas of Progress

(1)

Chemical Control of Plant Diseases

(1)

Appearance of Pathogen Races Resistant to Bactericides and Fungicides

(1)

Public Concern about Chemical Pesticides

(1)

Alternative Controls for Plant Diseases

(1)

Interest in the Mechanisms by Which Pathogens Cause Disease

(2)

The Concept of Genetic Inheritance of Resistance and Pathogenicity

(1)

Epidemiology of Plant Disease Comes of Age

(1)

Plant Pathology Today and Future Directions

(2)

Molecular Plant Pathology

(2)

Aspects of Applied Plant Pathology

(4)

Plant Biotechnology --- The Promise and the Objections

(2)

Food Safety

(1)

Bioterrorism, Agroterrorism, Biological Warfare, etc. Who, What, Why

(1)

Worldwide Development of Plant Pathology as a Profession

(5)

International Centers for Agricultural Research

(1)

Trends in Teaching and Training

(1)

Plant Disease Clinics

(1)

The Practice and Practitioners of Plant Pathology

(1)

Certification of Professional Plant Pathologists

(1)

Plant Pathology as a Part of Plant Medicine; the Doctor of Plant Medicine Program

(1)

Plant Pathologists' Contributin to Crops and Society

(6)

Some Historical and Present Examples of Losses Caused by Plant Diseases

(1)

Plant Diseases and World Crop Production

(1)

Crop Losses to Diseases, Insects and Weeds

(3)

Pesticides and Plant Diseases

(2)

Basic Procedures in the Diagnosis of Plant Diseases

(6)

Pathogen or Environment

(1)

Infectious Diseases

(1)

Parasitic Higher Plants --- Nematodes --- Fungi and Bacteria: Fungi --- Bacteria and Mollicutes

(1)

Viruses and Viroids --- More than One Pathogen

(1)

Noninfectious Diseases

(1)

Identification of a Preciously Unknown Disease: Koch's Postulates

(3)

Parasitism and Disease Development

Parasitism and Pathogenicity

(1)

Host Range of Pathogens

(1)

Development of Disease in Plants

(1)

Stages in the Development of Disease: The Disease Cycle

(22)

Inoculation

(1)

Inoculation, Types of Inoculum, Sources of Inoculum, Landing or Arrival of Inoculum

(2)

Prepenetration Phenomena

(1)

Attachment of Pathogen to Host, Spore Germination and Perception of the Host Surface, Appressorium Formation and Maturation, Recognition between Host and Pathogen, Germination of Spores and Seeds, Hatching of Nematode Eggs

(5)

Penetration

(1)

Direct Penetration through Intact Plant Surfaces, Penetration through Wounds, Penetration through Natural Openings

(2)

Infection

(1)

Infection, Invasion, Growth and Reproduction of the Pathogen (Colonization)

(7)

Dissemination of the Pathogen

(1)

Dissemination by Air, Dissemination by Water, Dissemination by Insects, Mites, Nematodes, and Other Vectors, Dissemination by Pollen, Seed, Transplants, Budwood, and Nursery Stock, Dissemination by Humans

(4)

Overwintering and/or Oversummering of Pathogens

100

(2)

Relationships between Disease Cycles and Epidemics

102

(4)

Effects of Pathogens on Plant Physiological Functions

Effects of Pathogens on Photosynthesis

106

(1)

Effect of Pathogens on Translocation of Water and Nutrients in the Host Plant

106

(7)

Interference with Upward Translocation of Water and Inorganic Nutrients

106

(2)

Effect on Absorption of Water by Roots

108

(1)

Effect on Translocation of Water through the Xylem

108

(1)

Effect on Transpiration

108

(5)

Interference with the Translocation of Organic Nutrients through the Phloem

113

(2)

Effect of Pathogens on Host Plant Respiration

115

(3)

Respiration of Diseased Plants

117

(1)

Effect of Pathogens on Permeability of Cell Membranes

118

(1)

Effects of Pathogens on Transcription and Translation

118

(1)

Effect on Transcription

119

(1)

Effect on Translation

119

(1)

Effect of Pathogens on Plant Growth

119

(2)

Effect of Pathogens on Plant Reproduction

121

(4)

Genetics of Plant Disease

Introduction

125

(14)

Genes and Disease --- Variability in Organisms --- Mechanisms of Variability

126

(3)

General Mechanisms: Mutation --- Recombination --- Gene and Genotype Flow among Plant Pathogens --- Population Genetics, Genetic Drift, and Selection --- Life Cycles --- Reproduction --- Mating Systems --- Out-crossing --- Pathogen Fitness

129

(2)

Specialized Mechanisms of Variability in Pathogens: Sexual-like Processes in Fungi Heterokaryosis --- Parasexualism --- Vegetative Incompatibility --- Heteroploidy

131

(1)

Sexual-like Processes in Bacteria and Horizontal Gene Transfer

132

(1)

Genetic Recombination in Viruses

133

(1)

Loss of Pathogen Virulence in Culture

133

(1)

Stages of Variation in Pathogens

134

(1)

Types of Plant Resistance to Pathogens

134

(2)

True Resistance: Partial, Quantitative, Polygenic, or Horizontal Resistance --- R-Gene Resistance, Monogenic, or Vertical Resistance

136

(1)

Disease Escape --- Tolerance to Disease

137

(2)

Genetics of Virulence in Pathogens and of Resistance in Host Plants

139

(26)

The Nature of Resistance to Disease --- Pathogenicity Genes in Plant Pathogens

142

(1)

Genes Involved in Pathogenesis and Virulence by Pathogens

142

(2)

Pathogenicity Genes of Fungi controlling: Production of Infection Structures --- Degradation of Cuticle and Cell Wall --- Secondary Metabolites --- Fungal Toxins --- Pathogenicity Signaling Systems

144

(2)

Pathogenicity Genes in Plant Pathogenic Bacteria controlling: Adhesion to Plant Surfaces --- Secretion Systems --- Enzymes that Degrade Cell Walls --- Bacterial Toxins as Pathogenicity Factors --- Extracellular Polysaccharides as Pathogenicity Factors --- Bacterial Regulatory Systems and Networks --- Sensing Plant Signaling Components --- Other Bacterial Pathogenicity Factors

146

(3)

Pathogenicity Genes in Plant Viruses: --- Functions Associated with the Coat Protein --- Viral Pathogenicity Genes

149

(1)

Nematode Pathogenicity Genes

150

(1)

Genetics of Resistance through the Hypersensitive Response

151

(1)

Pathogen-Derived Elicitors of Defense Responses in Plants

151

(3)

Avirulence (avr) Genes: One of the Elicitors of Plant Defense Responses Characteristics of avr Gene-Coded Proteins: --- Their Structure and Function Role of avr Genes in Pathogenicity and Virulence

154

(1)

hrp Genes and the Type III Secretion System

155

(1)

Resistance (R) Genes of Plants: Examples of R Genes --- How Do R Genes Confer Resistance? --- Evolution of R Genes --- Other Plant Genes for Resistance to Disease

155

(5)

Signal Transduction between Pathogenicity Genes and Resistance Genes: --- Signaling and Regulation of Programmed Cell Death --- Genes and Signaling in Systemic Acquired Resistance

160

(1)

Examples of Molecular Genetics of Selected Plant Diseases: --- The Powdery Mildew Disease --- Magnaporthe grisea, the Cause of Rice Blast --- Fusarium, the Soilborne Plant Pathogen --- Ustilago maydis and Corn Smut

161

(4)

Breeding of Resistant Varieties

165

(1)

Natural Variability in Plants --- Breeding and Variability in Plants --- Breeding for Disease Resistance Sources of Genes for Resistance --- Techniques Used in Classical Breeding for Resistance --- Seed, Pedigree, and Recurrent Selection --- Tissue Culture and Genetic Engineering Techniques

165

(12)

Genetic Transformation of Plant Cells for Disease Resistance

169

(1)

Advantages and Problems in Breeding for Vertical or Horizontal Resistance

169

(1)

Vulnerability of Genetically Uniform Crops to Plant Disease Epidemics

170

(7)

How Pathogens Attack Plants

Mechanical Forces Exerted By Pathogens on Host Tissues

177

(2)

Chemical Weapons of Pathogens

179

(29)

Enzymes in Plant Disease

180

(1)

Enzymatic Degradation of Cell Wall Substances

180

(1)

Cuticular Wax --- Cutin --- Pectic Substances --- Cellulose --- Cross-Linking Glycans (Hemicelluloses) --- Suberin --- Lignin --- Cell Wall Flavonoids --- Cell Wall Structural Proteins

180

(9)

Enzymatic Degradation of Substances Contained in Plant Cells

189

(1)

Proteins --- Starch --- Lipids

189

(1)

Microbial Toxins in Plant Disease

190

(1)

Toxins That Affect a Wide Range of Host Plants

190

(1)

Tabtoxin --- Phaseolotoxin --- Tentoxin --- Cercosporin --- Other Non-Host-Specific Toxins

191

(2)

Host-Specific or Host-Selective Toxins

193

(1)

Victorin, HV Toxin --- T-Toxin |Cochliobolus (Helminthosporium) heterostrophus Race T-Toxin| --- C-Toxin --- Alternaria alternata Toxins --- Other Host-Specific Toxins

194

(2)

Growth Regulators in Plant Disease

196

(5)

Detoxification of Low-Molecular Weight Antimicrobial Molecules

201

(1)

Promotion of Bacterial Virulence By avr Genes

202

(1)

Role of Type III Secretion in Bacterial Pathogenesis

202

(1)

Pathogenicity and Virulence Factors in Viruses and Viroids

202

(6)

How Plants Defend Themselves Against Pathogens

Whatever the Plant Defense or Resistance, It Is Controlled by Its Genes

208

(2)

Non-host Resistance --- Partial, Polygenic, Quantitative, or Horizontal Resistance --- Monogenic, R Gene, or Vertical Resistance

208

(2)

Preexisting Structural and Chemical Defenses

210

(2)

Preexisting Defense Structures

210

(1)

Preexisting Chemical Defenses

211

(1)

Inhibitors Released by the Plant in Its Environment --- Inhibitors Present in Plant Cells before Infection

211

(1)

Defense through Lack of Essential Factors

212

(1)

Lack of Recognition between Host and Pathogen: Lack of Host Receptors and Sensitive Sites for Toxins --- Lack of Essential Substances for the Pathogen

212

(1)

Induced Structural and Biochemical Defenses

213

(1)

Recognition of the Pathogen by the Host Plant

213

(1)

Transmission of the Alarm Signal to Host Defense Providers: Signal Transduction

214

(1)

Induced Structural Defenses: Cytoplasmic Defense Reaction --- Cell Wall Defense Structures

214

(3)

Histological Defense Structures: Formation of Cork Layers --- Abscission Layers --- Tyloses --- Deposition of Gums

215

(2)

Necrotic Structural Defense Reaction: Defense through the Hypersensitive Response

217

(1)

Induced Biochemical Defenses in: Non-Host Resistance --- In Partial, Quantitative (Polygenic, General, or Horizontal) Resistance: Function of Gene Products in Quantitative Resistance --- The Mechanisms of Quantitative Resistance --- Effect of Temperature on Quantitative Resistance

217

(4)

Induced Biochemical Defenses in the Hypersensitive Response (R Gene) Resistance

221

(15)

The Hypersensitive Response: Genes Induced During Early Infection --- Functional Analysis of Plant Defense Genes --- Classes of R Gene Proteins --- Recognition of Avr Proteins of Pathogens by the Host Plant --- How Do R and Avr Gene Products Activate Plant Responses? --- Some Examples of Plant Defense through R Genes and Their Matching Avr Genes: --- The Rice Pi-ta Gene. The Tomato Cf Genes. The Tomato Bs2 Gene. The Arabidopsis RPM1 Gene --- The Co-function of Two or More Genes

221

(8)

Defense Involving Bacterial Type III Effector Proteins

229

(2)

Production of Active Oxygen Species, Lipoxygenases, and Disruption of Cell Membranes --- Reinforcement of Host Cell Walls with Strengthening Molecules

231

(1)

Production of Antimicrobial Substances in Attacked Host Cells --- Pathogenesis-Related (PR) Proteins

232

(1)

Defense through Production of Secondary Metabolites --- Phenolics: --- Simple Phenolic Compounds --- Toxic Phenolics from Nontoxic Phenolic Glycosides --- Role of Phenol-Oxidizing Enzymes in Disease Resistance --- Phytoalexins

233

(3)

Detoxification of Pathogen Toxins by Plants --- Immunization of Plants against Pathogens: Defense through Plantibodies

236

(1)

Resistance through prior Exposure to Mutants of Reduced Pathogenicity

237

(1)

Systemic Acquired Resistance: --- Induction by Artificial Inoculation with Microbes or by Treatment with Chemicals

237

(5)

Defense through Genetically Engineering Disease-Resistant Plants

242

(1)

With Plant-Derived Genes --- With Pathogen-Derived Genes

242

(1)

Defense through RNA Silencing by Pathogen-Derived Genes

242

(9)

Environmental Effects on the Development of Infectious Plant Disease

Introduction

251

(2)

Effect of Temperature

253

(4)

Effect of Moisture

257

(1)

Effect of Wind

257

(1)

Effect of Light

257

(1)

Effect of Soil pH and Soil Structure

257

(1)

Effect of Host-Plant Nutrition

257

(5)

Effect of Herbicides

262

(1)

Effect of Air Pollutants

262

(4)

Plant Disease Epidemiology

The Elements of an Epidemic

266

(1)

Host Factors That Affect the Development of Epidemics

267

(2)

Levels of Genetic Resistance or Susceptibility of the Host --- Degree of Genetic Uniformity of Host Plants --- Type of Crop --- Age of Host Plants

267

(2)

Pathogen Factors That Affect Development of Epidemics

269

(2)

Levels of Virulence --- Quantity of Inoculum Near Hosts --- Type of Reproduction of the Pathogen --- Ecology of the Pathogen --- Mode of Spread of the Pathogen

269

(2)

Environmental Factors That Affect Development of Epidemics

271

(1)

Moisture --- Temperature

271

(1)

Effect of Human Cultural Practices and Control Measures

272

(1)

Site Selection and Preparation --- Selection of Propagative Material --- Cultural Practices --- Disease Control Measures --- Introduction of New Pathogens

272

(1)

Measurement of Plant Disease and of Yield Loss

273

(1)

Patterns of Epidemics --- Comparison of Epidemics --- Development of Epidemics --- Modeling of Plant Disease Epidemics --- Computer Simulation of Epidemics

274

(7)

Forecasting Plant Disease Epidemics

281

(2)

Evaluation of Epidemic Thresholds --- Evaluation of Economic Damage Threshold --- Assessment of Initial Inoculum and of Disease --- Monitoring Weather Factors That Affect Disease Development

281

(2)

New Tools in Epidemiology

283

(2)

Molecular Tools. GIS. Remote Sensing. Image Analysis. Information Technology

283

(2)

Examples of Plant Disease Forecast Systems

285

(4)

Forecasts Based on Amount of Initial Inoculum --- On Weather Conditions Favoring Development of Secondary Inoculum --- On Amounts of Initial and Secondary Inoculum

285

(4)

Disease-Warning Systems --- Development and Use of Expert Systems in Plant Pathology --- Decision Support Systems

289

(6)

Control of Plant Diseases

Control Methods that Exclude the Pathogen from the Host

295

(3)

Quarantines and Inspections --- Crop Certification --- Evasion or Avoidance of Pathogen --- Use of Pathogen-Free Propagating Material --- Pathogen-Free Seed --- Pathogen-Free Vegetative Propagating Materials --- Exclusion of Pathogens from Plant Surfaces by Epidermal Coatings

295

(3)

Control Methods that Eradicate or Reduce Pathogen Inoculum

298

(24)

Cultural Methods that Eradicate or Reduce the Inoculum: --- Host Eradication --- Crop Rotation --- Sanitation --- Creating Conditions Unfavorable to the Pathogen --- Polyethylene Traps and Mulches

300

(3)

Biological Methods that Eradicate or Reduce the Inoculum: --- Suppressive Soils

303

(2)

Reducing Amount of Pathogen Inoculum through Antagonistic Microorganisms Soilborne Pathogens --- Aerial Pathogens --- Mechanisms of Action --- Control through Trap Plants --- Control through Antagonistic Plants

305

(5)

Physical Methods that Eradicate or Reduce the Inoculum --- Control by Heat Treatment --- Soil Sterilization by Heat --- Soil Solarization Hot-Water Treatment of Propagative Organs --- Hot-Air Treatment of Storage Organs Control by Eliminating Certain Light Wavelengths --- Drying Stored Grains and Fruit --- Disease Control by Radiation --- Trench Barriers against Root-transmitted Tree Diseases

310

(2)

Chemical Methods that Eradicate or Reduce the Inoculum --- Soil Treatment with Chemicals --- Fumigation --- Disinfestation of Warehouses --- Control of Insect Vectors

312

(2)

Cross Protection --- Induced Resistance: Systemic Acquired Resistance --- Plant Defense Activators --- Improving the Growing Conditions of Plants --- Use of Resistant Varieties

314

(5)

Control through Use of Transgenic Plants Transformed for Disease Resistance Transgenic Plants that Tolerate Abiotic Stresses --- Transgenic Plants Transformed with: Specific Plant Genes for Resistance --- with Genes Coding for Anti-pathogen Compounds --- with Nucleic Acids that Lead to Resistance and to Pathogen Gene Silencing --- with Combinations of Resistance Genes --- Producing Antibodies against the Pathogen --- Transgenic Biocontrol Microorganisms

319

(3)

Direct Protection of Plants from Pathogens

322

(6)

By Biological Controls: --- Fungal Antagonists: Heterobasidion (Fomes) annosum by Phleviopsis (Peniophora) gigantea --- Chestnut Blight with Hypovirulent Strains of the Pathogen --- Soilborne Diseases --- Diseases of Aerial Plant Parts with Fungi. --- Postharvest Diseases Bacterial Antagonists: Soilborne Diseases --- Diseases of Aerial Plant Parts with Bacteria --- Postharvest Diseases --- with Bacteria of Bacteria-Mediated Frost Injury

328

(1)

Viral Parasites of Plant Pathogens

328

(1)

Biological Control of Weeds

328

(1)

Direct Protection by Chemicals

329

(19)

Methods of Application of Chemicals for Plant Disease Control --- Foliage Sprays and Dusts --- Seed Treatment --- Soil Treatment --- Treatment of Tree Wounds --- Control of Postharvest Diseases

332

(6)

Types of Chemicals Used for Plant Disease Control

338

(1)

Inorganic --- Inorganic Sulfur Compounds --- Carbonate Compounds --- Phosphate and Phosphonate Compounds --- Film-Forming Compounds

338

(1)

Organic Chemicals: Contact Protective Fungicides --- Organic Sulfur Compounds: Ditihiocarbamates

339

(1)

Systemic Fungicides: --- Heterocyclic Compounds --- Acylalanines --- Benzimidazoles --- Oxanthiins --- Organophosphate Fungicides --- Pyrimidines --- Trizoles --- Strobilurins or Qol Fungicides --- Miscellaneous Systemics

340

(3)

Miscellaneous Organic Fungicides --- Antibiotics --- Petroleum Oils and Plant Oils --- Electrolyed Oxidizing Water --- Growth Regulators --- Nematicides: --- Hologenated Hydrocarbons --- Organophosphate Nematicides --- Isothiocoyanates --- Carbamates --- Miscellaneous Nematicides

343

(2)

Mechanisms of Action of Chemicals Used to Control Plant Diseases --- Resistance of Pathogens to Chemicals --- Restrictions on Chemical Control of Plant Diseases

345

(3)

Integrated Control of Plant Diseases: --- In a Perennial Crop --- In an Annual Crop

348

(10)

part two SPECIFIC PLANT DISEASES

Environmental Factors That Cause Plant Diseases

Introduction: General Characteristics --- Diagnosis --- Control

358

(1)

Temperature Effects: High-Temperature Effects --- Low-Temperature Effects --- Low-Temperature Effects on Indoor Plants

358

(7)

Moisture Effects: Low Soil Moisture Effects --- Low Relative Humidity --- High Soil Moisture Effects

365

(2)

Inadequate Oxygen

367

(1)

Light

368

(1)

Air Pollution

368

Air Pollutants and Kinds of Injury to Plants --- Main Sources of Air Pollutants --- How Air Pollutants Affect Plants --- Acid Rain

Nutritional Deficiencies in Plants

372

(1)

Soil Minerals Toxic to Plants

372

(6)

Herbicide Injury

378

(3)

Other Improper Agricultural Practices

381

(2)

The Often Confused Etiology of Stress Diseases

383

(1)

Plant Diseases Caused by Fungi

Introduction

383

(4)

Some Interesting Facts about Fungi (Box)

387

(1)

Characteristics of plant pathogenic fungi

388

(2)

Morphology --- Reproduction --- Ecology --- Dissemination

388

(2)

Classification of Plant Pathogenic Fungi

390

(7)

Fungallike Organisms --- The True Fungi

391

(6)

Identification: Symptoms Caused by Fungi on Plants

397

(1)

Isolation of fungi (and Bacteria)

398

(4)

Preparing for Isolation --- Isolating the Pathogen

398

(4)

Life Cycles of Fungi

402

(1)

Control of Fungal Diseases of Plants

403

(1)

Diseases Caused by Fungallike Organisms

404

(1)

Diseases Caused by Myxomycota (Myxomycetes)

404

(1)

Diseases Caused by Plasmodiophoromycetes

405

(4)

Clubroot of Crucifers

407

(2)

Diseases Caused by Oomycetes

409

(24)

Pythium Seed Rot, Damping-off, Root Rot, and Soft Rot

410

(4)

Phytophthora Diseases

414

(1)

Phytophthora Root and Stem Rots --- Phytophthoras Declare War on Cultivated Plants and on Native Tree Species (Box)

414

(7)

Late Blight of Potatoes

421

(6)

The Downy Mildews

427

(1)

Introduction --- Downy Mildew of Grape

428

(5)

Diseases Caused by True Fungi

433

(1)

Diseases Caused by Chytridiomycetes

433

(1)

Diseases Caused by Zygomycetes

434

(5)

Diseases Caused by Ascomycetes and Mitosporic Fungi

439

(13)

Sooty molds --- Taphrina leaf Curl Diseases --- Powdery Mildews

440

(12)

Foliar Diseases Caused by Ascomycetes and Deuteromycetes (Mitosporic Fungi)

452

(21)

Alternaria Diseases --- Cladosporium Diseases --- Needle Casts and Blights of Conifers

452

(6)

Mycosphaerella Diseases: Banana Leaf Spot or Sigatoka Disease

458

(2)

Septoria Diseases --- Cercospora Diseases --- Rice Blast Disease

460

(6)

Cochliobolus, Pyrenophora and Setosphaeria Diseases of Cereals and Grasses

466

(1)

Diseases of Corn: --- Southern Corn Leaf Blight --- Northern Corn Leaf Blight --- Northern Corn Leaf Spot

466

(2)

Diseases of Rice --- Brown Spot Disease of Rice

468

(1)

Cochlioholus Diseases of Wheat, Barley, and Other Grasses

469

(1)

Crown Rot and Common Root Rot --- Spot Blotch of Barley and Wheat

469

(1)

Pyrenophora Diseases of Wheat, Barley and Oats

469

(1)

Net Blotch of Barley --- Barley Stripe --- Tan Spot of Wheat

469

(4)

Stem and Twig Cankers Caused by Ascomycetes and Deuteromycetes (Mitosporic Fungi)

473

(10)

Black Knot of Plum and Cherry --- Chestnut Blight --- Nectria Canker --- Leucostoma Canker

476

(5)

Cankers of Forest Trees: --- Hypoxylon Canker --- Pitch Canker --- Butternut Canker --- Phomopsis Blight --- Seiridium Canker

481

(2)

Anthracnose Diseases Caused by Ascomycetes and Deureromycetes (Mitosporic Fungi)

483

(18)

Black Spot of Rose

485

(1)

Elsinoe Anthracnose and Scab Diseases: --- Grape Anthracnose or Bird's-eye Rot --- Raspherry Anthracnose --- Citrus Scab Diseases --- Avocado Scab

486

(1)

Colletotrichum Diseases: Colletotrichum Anthracnose Diseases of Annual Plants

487

(3)

Anthracnose of Beans --- Anthracnose of Cucurbits --- Anthracnose or Ripe Rot of Tomato --- Onion Anthracnose or Smudge --- Strawberry Anthracnose --- Anthracnose of Cereals and Grasses

490

(1)

Colletotrichum Anthracnoses: A Menace To Tropical Crops (Box) Colletotrichum

491

(3)

Bitter Rot of Apple --- Ripe Rot of Grape

494

(4)

Gnomonia Anthracnose and Leaf Spot Diseases

498

(3)

Dogwood Anthracnose

501

(1)

Fruit and General Diseases Caused by Ascomycetes and Deuteromycetes (Mitosporic Fungi)

501

(21)

Ergot of Cereals and Grasses --- Apple Scab --- Brown Rot of Stone Fruits --- Monoliophthora Pod Rot of Cacao --- Botrytis Diseases --- Black Rot of Grape --- Cucurbit Gummy Stem Blight and Black Rot --- Diaporthe, Phomopsis, and Phoma Diseases --- Stem Canker of Soybeans --- Melanose Disease of Citrus --- Phomopsis Diseases --- Black Rot of Apple

501

(21)

Vascular Wilts Caused by Ascomycetes and Deuteromycetes (Mitosporic Fungi)

522

(12)

Fusarium Wilts: Of Tomato --- Fusarium or Panama Wilt of Banana

523

(3)

Verticillium Wilts

526

(2)

Ophiostoma Wilt of Elm Trees: Dutch Elm Disease

528

(4)

Ceratocystis Wilts --- Oak wilt --- Ceratocystis Wilt of Eucalyptus

532

(2)

Root and Stem Rots Caused by Ascomycetes and Deuteromycetes (Mitosporic Fungi)

534

(19)

Gibberella Diseases --- Gibberella Stalk and Ear Rot, and Seedling Blight of Corn

535

(1)

Fusarium (Gibberella) Head Blight (FHB) or Scab of Small Grains

535

(3)

Fusarium Root and Stem Rots of Non-Grain Crops

538

(2)

Take-All of Wheat --- Thielavopsis Black Root Rot --- Monosporascus Root Rot and Vine Decline of Melons

540

(6)

Sclerotinia Diseases: Sclerotinia Diseases of Vegetables and Flowers --- Phymatotrichum Root Rot

546

(7)

Postharvest Diseases of Plant Products Caused by Ascomycetes and Deuteromycetes

553

(9)

Postharvest Decays of Fruits and Vegetables

556

(1)

Aspergillus, Penicillium, Rhizopus, and Mucor --- Alternaria --- Botrytis --- Fusarium --- Geotrichum --- Penicillium --- Sclerotinia

556

(1)

Control of Postharvest Decays of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables

557

(1)

Postharvest Decays of Grain and Legume Seeds

558

(1)

Mycotoxins and Mycotoxicoses

559

(1)

Aspergillus Toxins --- Aflatoxins

559

(1)

Fusarium Toxins --- Other Aspergillus Toxins and Penicillium Toxins

559

(1)

Control of Postharvest Grain Decays

560

(2)

Diseases Caused by Basidiomycetes

562

(1)

The Rusts --- The Smuts --- Root and Stem Rots --- Wood Rots and Decays --- Witches' Broom

562

(1)

The Rusts

562

(20)

Cereal Rusts --- Stem Rust of Wheat and Other Cereals

565

(6)

Rusts of Legumes --- Bean Rust --- Soybean Rust --- A Major Threat to a Major Crop (Box)

571

(3)

Cedar-Apple Rust --- Coffee Rust

574

(3)

Rusts of Forest Trees: --- White Pine Blister Rust --- Fusiform Rust

577

(5)

The Smuts

582

(11)

Corn Smut --- Loose Smut of Cereals --- Covered Smut, or Bunt, of Wheat

588

(4)

Karnal Bunt of Small Grains-Legitimate Concerns and Political Predicaments (Box)

592

(1)

Root and Stem Rots Caused by Basidiomycetes

593

(23)

Root and Stem Rot Diseases Caused by the ``Sterile Fungi'' Rhizoctonia and Sclerotium

593

(1)

Rhizoctonia Diseases --- Sclerotium Diseases

594

(8)

Root Rots of Trees

602

(1)

Armillaria Root Rot of Fruit and Forest Trees

602

(2)

Wood Rots and Decays Caused by Basidiomycetes

604

(7)

Witches' Broom of Cacao

611

(5)

Plant Diseases Caused by Prokaryotes: Bacteria and Mollicutes

Introduction

616

(2)

Plant Diseases Caused by Bacteria

618

(9)

Characteristics of Plant Pathogenic Bacteria

618

(1)

Morphology --- Reproduction --- Ecology and Spread --- Identification of Bacteria --- Symptoms Caused by Bacteria --- Control of Bacterial Diseases of Plants

618

(9)

Bacterial Spots and Blights

627

(11)

Introduction --- Wildfire of Tobacco --- Bacterial Blights of Bean --- Angular Leaf Spot of Cucumber --- Angular Leaf Spot or Bacterial Blight of Cotton --- Bacterial Leaf Spots and Blights of Cereals and Grasses --- Bacterial Spot of Tomato and Pepper --- Bacterial Speck of Tomato --- Bacterial Fruit Blotch of Watermelon --- Cassava Bacterial Blight --- Bacterial Spot of Stone Fruits

627

(11)

Bacterial Vascular Wilts

638

(18)

Bacterial Wilt of Cucurbits --- Fire Blight of Pear and Apple --- Southern Bacterial Wilt of Solanaceous Plants --- Bacterial Wilt or Moko Disease of Banana --- Ring Rot of Potato

639

(12)

Bacterial Canker and Wilt of Tomato --- Bacterial Wilt (Black Rot) of Crucifers --- Stewart's Wilt of Corn

651

(5)

Bacterial Soft Rots

656

(6)

Bacterial Soft Rots of Vegetables

656

(4)

The Incalculable Postharvest Losses from Bacterial (and Fungal) Soft Rots (Box)

660

(2)

Bacterial Galls

662

(5)

Crown Gall

662

(2)

The Crown Gall Bacterium --- The Natural Genetic Engineer (Box)

664

(3)

Bacterial Cankers

667

(7)

Bacterial Canker and Gummosis of Stone Fruit Trees --- Citrus Canker

667

(7)

Bacterial Scabs

674

(1)

Common Scab of Potato

667

(8)

Root Nodules of Legumes

675

(3)

Xylem-Inhabiting Fastidious Bacteria

678

(9)

Pierce's Disease of Grape --- Citrus Variegated Chlorosis --- Ratoon Stunting of Sugarcane

679

(4)

Phloem-Inhabiting Fastidious Bacteria

683

(1)

Yellow Vine Disease of Cucurbits --- Citrus Greening Disease --- Papaya Bunchy Top Disease

684

(3)

Plant Diseases Caused By Mollicutes: Phytoplasmas and Spiroplasmas

687

(4)

Properties of True Mycoplasmas --- Phytoplasmas --- Spiroplasmas

688

(3)

Examples of Plant Diseases Caused by Mollicutes

691

(8)

Aster Yellows --- Lethal Yellowing of Coconut Palms --- Apple Proliferation --- European Stone Fruit Yellows --- Ash Yellows --- Elm Yellows (Phloem Necrosis) --- Peach X-Disease --- Pear Decline

691

(8)

Spiroplasma Diseases

699

Citrus Stubborn Disease --- Corn Stunt Disease

691

(14)

Plant Diseases Caused by Parasitic Higher Plants, Invasive Climbing Plants, and Parasitic Green Algae

Introduction --- Parasitic Higher Plants

705

(11)

Dodder --- Witchweed --- Broomrapes --- Dwarf Mistletoes of Conifers --- True or Leafy Mistletoes

706

(10)

Invasive Climbing Plants

716

(3)

Old World Climbing Fern --- Kudzu Vine

717

(2)

Parasitic Green Algae: Cephaleuros

719

(1)

Plant Diseases Caused by Algae

719

(5)

Plant Diseases Caused by Viruses

Introduction

724

(1)

Characteristics of Plant Viruses

724

(7)

Detection --- Morphology --- Composition and Structure: Of Viral Protein --- Of Viral Nucleic Acid

725

(6)

Satellite Viruses and Satellite RNAs

731

(1)

The Biological Function of Viral Components: Coding

731

(1)

Virus Infection and Virus Synthesis

731

(2)

Translocation and Distribution of Viruses in Plants

733

(1)

Symptoms Caused by Plant Viruses

734

(3)

Physiology of Virus-Infected Plants

737

(1)

Transmission of Plant Viruses By: Vegetative Propagation --- Sap --- Seed --- Pollen --- Insects --- Mites --- Nematodes --- Fungi --- Dodder

737

(6)

Epidemiology of Plant Viruses and Viroids

743

(1)

Purification of Plant Viruses --- Serology of Plant Viruses

743

(4)

Nomenclature and Classification of Plant Viruses

747

(4)

Detection and Identification of Plant Viruses

751

(1)

Economic Importance of Plant Viruses

752

(1)

Control of Plant Viruses

753

(4)

Diseases Caused by Rigid Rod-Shaped Viruses

757

(5)

Diseases Caused by Tobamoviruses: --- Tobacco Mosaic

757

(1)

The Contribution of Tobacco Mosaic Virus to Biology and Medicine (Box)

757

(1)

Diseases Caused by Tobraviruses: --- Tobacco Rattle by Furoviruses --- by Hordeiviruses --- by Pecluviruses --- by Pomoviruses --- by Benyviruses

758

(4)

Diseases Caused by Filamentous Viruses

762

(2)

Diseases Caused by Potexviruses --- by Carlaviruses --- by Capilloviruses and Trichoviruses --- by Allexiviruses, Foveaviruses, and Vitiviruses

762

(2)

Diseases Caused by Potyviridae

764

(10)

Diseases Caused by Potyviruses

764

(3)

Bean Common Mosaic and Bean Yellow Mosaic --- Lettuce Mosaic --- Plum Pox --- Papaya Ringspot --- Potato Virus Y --- Sugarcane Mosaic --- Tobacco Etch --- Turnip Mosaic --- Watermelon Mosaic --- Zucchini Yellow Mosaic

767

(6)

Diseases Caused by Ipomoviruses, Macluraviruses, Rymoviruses, and Tritimoviruses --- by Bymoviruses

773

(1)

Diseases Caused by Closteroviridae

774

(5)

Diseases Caused by Closteroviruses: --- Citrus Tristeza --- Beet Yellows Diseases Caused by Criniviruses: --- Lettuce Infectious Yellows

774

(5)

Diseases Caused by Isometric Single-Stranded RNA Viruses

779

(1)

Diseases Caused by Sequiviridae, Genus Waikavirus

779

(2)

Rice TungroDiseases Caused by Tombusviridae

779

(2)

Diseases Caused by Luteoviridae

781

(2)

Barley Yellow Dwarf --- Potato Leafroll --- Beet Western Yellows

781

(2)

Diseases Caused by Monopartite Isometric (+)ssRNA Viruses of Genera Not Yet Assigned to Families

783

(1)

Diseases Caused by Comoviridae

784

(3)

Diseases Caused by Comoviruses

784

(1)

Diseases Caused by Nepoviruses

784

(1)

Tomato Ring Spot --- Grapevine Fanleaf --- Raspberry Ring Spot

785

(2)

Diseases Caused by Bromoviridae

787

(1)

Diseases Caused by Cucumoviruses

787

(3)

Cucumber Mosaic

788

(2)

Diseases Caused by Ilarviruses: Prunus Necrotic Ring Spot

790

(2)

Diseases Caused by Isometric Double-Stranded RNA Viruses

792

(2)

Diseases Caused by Reoviridae

792

(2)

Diseases Caused by Negative RNA [(--)ssRNA] Viruses

794

(1)

Plant Diseases Caused by Rhabdoviruses

794

(7)

Plant Diseases Caused by Tospoviruses

795

(4)

Plant Diseases Caused by Tenuiviruses

799

(2)

Diseases Caused by Double-Stranded DNA Viruses

801

(1)

Diseases Caused by Caulimoviruses and Other Isometric Caulimoviridae

801

(4)

Diseases Caused by Badnaviruses

803

(2)

Diseases Caused by Single-Stranded DNA Viruses

805

(1)

Plant Diseases Caused by Geminiviridae

805

(8)

Beet Curly Top --- Maize Streak --- African Cassava Mosaic --- Bean Golden Mosaic --- Squash Leaf Curl --- Tomato Mottle --- Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl

809

(4)

Plant Diseases Caused by Isometric Single-Stranded

813

(1)

DNA Viruses: The Circoviridae

813

(13)

Banana Bunchy Top

814

(1)

Coconut Foliar Decay

815

(1)

Viroids

816

(1)

Plant Diseases Caused by Viroids

816

(1)

Taxonomy (Grouping) of Viroids

816

(4)

Potato Spindle Tuber --- Citrus Exocortis --- Coconut Cadang-Cadang

820

(6)

Plant Diseases Caused by Nematodes

Introduction

826

(1)

Characteristics of Plant Pathogenic Nematodes

827

(4)

Morphology --- Anatomy --- Life Cycles --- Ecology and Spread --- Classification

827

(4)

Isolation of Nematodes

831

(1)

Isolation of Nematodes from Soil

831

(1)

Isolation of Nematodes from Plant Material

832

(1)

Symptoms Caused by Nematodes

832

(1)

How Nematodes Affect Plants

833

(2)

Interrelationships between Nematodes and Other Plant Pathogens

835

(1)

Control of Nematodes

836

(2)

Important Nematodes and Diseases

838

(1)

Root-Knot Nematodes: Meloidogyne

838

(4)

Cyst Nematodes: Heterodera and Globodera

842

(6)

Soybean Cyst Nematode: Heterodera glycines

843

(3)

Sugar Beet Nematode: Heterodera schachtii

846

(1)

Potato Cyst Nematode: Globodera rostochiensis and Globodera pallida

847

(1)

The Citrus Nematode: Tylenchulus Semipenetrans

848

(1)

Lesion Nematodes: Pratylenchus

849

(4)

The Burrowing Nematode: Radopholus

853

(5)

The Added Significance of Plant Nematodes in the Tropics and Subtropics (Box)

858

(1)

Stem and Bulb Nematode: Ditylenchus

858

(2)

Sting Nematode: Belonolaimus

860

(3)

Stubby-Root Nematodes: Paratrichodorus and Trichodorus

863

(2)

Seed-Gall Nematodes: Anguina

865

(2)

Foliar Nematodes: Aphelenchoides

867

(3)

Pine Wilt and Palm Red Ring Diseases: Bursaphelenchus

870

(5)

Pine Wilt Nematode: Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

870

(2)

Red Ring Nematode: Bursaphelenchus cocophilus

872

(3)

Plant Diseases Caused by Flagellate Protozoa

Introduction

875

(3)

Nomenclature of Plant Trypanosomatids --- Taxonomy --- Pathogenicity --- Epidemiology and Control of Plant Trypanosomatids

877

(1)

Plant Diseases Caused by

878

(9)

Phloem-Restricted Trypanosomatids

878

(1)

Phloem Necrosis of Coffee --- Hartrot of Coconut Palms --- Sudden Wilt (Marchitez Sopresiva) of Oil Palm --- Wilt and Decay of Red Ginger

878

(4)

Laticifer-Restricted trypanosomatids

882

(1)

Empty Root of Cassava

882

(1)

Fruit-and Seed-Infecting Trypanosomatids

882

(1)

Fruit Trypanosomatids

882

(5)

Glossary

887

(16)

Index

903

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Plant Pathology

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials