Polymer Fiber Optics: Materials, Physics, and Applications

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ISBN: 9781574447064 | 1574447068
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 9/11/2006

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This straightforward text examines the scientific principles, characterization techniques, and fabrication methods used to design and produce high quality optical fibers. Polymer Fiber Optics: Materials, Physics, and Applications focuses on the fundamental concepts that will continue to be useful in future applications, including photomechanical actuation, electro-optic fibers, and smart materials. The book covers the history and physics of polymer fibers; scientific basis and practical considerations for characterization techniques; and processing protocols and fabrication techniques. The book contains ample figures, diagrams, and photographs to illustrate fiber structures, experimental setup, fabrication apparatus, and theoretical calculations.

Chapter 1 History of Polymer Optical Fibers

(16)

1.1 Introduction

(1)

1.2 Using Light for Telecommunications

(2)

1.3 Glass Fibers

(3)

1.3.1 Optical Imaging

(1)

1.3.2 Multimode Fibers

(1)

1.3.3 Small Core Fibers

(2)

1.4 Polymer Fibers

(7)

1.4.1 Early History of Polymer Fibers

(2)

1.4.2 Multimode Fibers

(1)

1.4.3 Gradient-Index Fibers

(1)

1.4.4 Single-Mode Polymer Fibers

(2)

1.4.5 Electrooptic Fiber Devices

(1)

1.4.6 Fiber Amplifiers and Lasers

(1)

1.4.7 Dual-Core Couplers and Devices

(1)

1.5 The Future

(4)

Chapter 2 Light Propagation in a Fiber Waveguide

(34)

2.1 Introduction

(6)

2.1.1 The Ray Picture of a Waveguide

(3)

2.1.2 The Wave Picture of a Waveguide

(3)

2.1.2.1 Rays and Waves

(2)

2.1.2.2 Solving Maxwell's Wave Equation

(1)

2.2 Bound Modes of Step-Index Fibers

(10)

2.2.1 Field Relations

(3)

2.2.2 Longitudinal Fields

(1)

2.2.3 Bound Modes

(2)

2.2.4 HE and EH Modes

(2)

2.2.5 TE and TM Modes

(1)

2.3 Multimode Waveguides

(2)

2.4 Ray Propagation in a Graded-Index Medium

(9)

2.4.1 Transit Time

(3)

2.4.2 Homogeneous Step-Index Profile

(1)

2.4.2.1 Transit Time

(1)

2.4.2.2 Ray Picture

(1)

2.4.3 Ideal Index Profile — The Power Law Profile

(2)

2.4.3.1 Transit Time

(2)

2.4.3.2 Ray Picture

(1)

2.4.4 Hyperbolic Secant Profile

(1)

2.5 Directional Couplers

(6)

2.5.1 Nonlinear Directional Couplers

(2)

2.6 Conclusion

(1)

2.7 Acknowledgments

(1)

Chapter 3 Fabricating Fibers

(36)

3.1 Making Polymer Fibers by Extrusion

(2)

3.1.1 Continuous Extrusion

(1)

3.1.2 Batch Extrusion

(1)

3.2 Making Polymer Fiber by Drawing a Preform

(26)

3.2.1 Making Doped Polymers

(6)

3.2.1.1 Dissolving Polymers

(1)

3.2.1.2 Polymerization with Dopants

(4)

3.2.2 Making a Core Preform

(1)

3.2.3 Making Core Fibers by Drawing

(5)

3.2.4 Making Core/Cladding Preforms

(22)

3.2.4.1 Dry Processing

(3)

3.2.4.2 Wet Processing

(11)

3.3 Birefringence of Drawn Fibers

(2)

3.4 Mechanical Properties of Fibers

(6)

Chapter 4 Theory of Refractive Index and Loss

(32)

4.1 Refractive Index

(9)

4.1.1 Isotropic Polymer

(2)

4.1.2 Birefringent Polymers

(2)

4.1.3 Relationship Between Number and Weight Percent

(1)

4.1.4 Mixing Polymers to Control the Refractive Index

(4)

4.2 Optical Loss

(5)

4.2.1 Absorbance

(1)

4.2.2 Linear Susceptibility

(3)

4.3 Bending Loss

101

(8)

4.3.1 Multimode Fiber

101

(4)

4.3.2 Single-Mode Fiber

105

(3)

4.3.2.1 Rayleigh Scattering

106

(2)

4.3.3 Microbending Loss

108

(1)

4.4 Dispersion

109

(2)

4.4.1 The Harmonic Oscillator

109

(2)

4.5 A Practical Example

111

(3)

4.5.1 Problem

111

(1)

4.5.2 Solution

112

(2)

4.6 Polarization

114

(5)

4.6.1 The Poincare Sphere

116

(1)

4.6.2 Some Examples of Polarization States

116

(3)

Chapter 5 Characterization Techniques and Properties

119

(58)

5.1 Refractive Index

119

(26)

5.1.1 Interphako

119

(6)

5.1.1.1 One-Dimensional Slab

119

(3)

5.1.1.2 Cylindrical Sample

122

(3)

5.1.2 Beam Deflection Technique

125

(9)

5.1.2.1 DDM Theory

125

(2)

5.1.2.2 DDM Experiment

127

(2)

5.1.2.3 Examples of Measured Refractive Index Profiles

129

(5)

5.1.3 Refracted Near-Field Technique

134

(5)

5.1.3.1 Introduction

134

(1)

5.1.3.2 Theory

134

(4)

5.1.3.3 Experimental Results

138

(1)

5.1.4 Fresnel Reflection Technique

139

(3)

5.1.5 Other Refractive Index Measurement Techniques

142

(1)

5.1.6 Measurements on Gradient-Index Fibers

143

(1)

5.1.7 Summary of Refractive Index Measurements

144

(1)

5.2 Optical Loss

145

(15)

5.2.1 Cutback Technique

146

(4)

5.2.1.1 Quick Cutback Method

146

(2)

5.2.1.2 Accurate Cutback Method

148

(2)

5.2.2 Transverse Scattering Loss Measurement

150

(1)

5.2.3 The Eyeball Technique

151

(1)

5.2.4 Photothermal Deflection

152

(3)

5.2.5 Side-Illuminated Fluorescence

155

(5)

5.2.5.1 Theory

155

(3)

5.2.5.2 Experimental Results

158

(2)

5.3 Numerical Aperture

160

(5)

5.3.1 Input Numerical Aperture Measurements

161

(3)

5.3.1.1 Objective Lens Coupling

161

(2)

5.3.1.2 Ray Angle Method

163

(1)

5.3.2 Output Numerical Aperture

164

(1)

5.4 Bandwidth

165

(12)

5.4.1 Modal Dispersion Ray Picture

165

(2)

5.4.2 Material Dispersion

167

(2)

5.4.2.1 Numerical Example of Material Dispersion

169

(1)

5.4.3 Modal Dispersion — Wave Picture

169

(1)

5.4.4 Measurement Techniques

170

(7)

5.4.4.1 Frequency Domain Measurements

171

(1)

5.4.4.2 Time Domain Experiments

171

(4)

5.4.4.3 Time Domain Measurements Applied to Graded-Index Polymer Fibers

175

(1)

5.4.4.4 Mode Mixing in Polymer Fibers

175

(2)

Chapter 6 Transmission, Light Sources, and Amplifiers

177

(36)

6.1 Transmission

177

(3)

6.1.1 Loss Conventions

177

(1)

6.1.2 Fiber Materials

177

(3)

6.2 Displays

180

(1)

6.3 Optical Amplification and Lasing

181

(32)

6.3.1 Principles of Stimulated Emission

181

(6)

6.3.2 Fluorescence

187

(5)

6.3.2.1 Decay and Recovery of Fluorescence

189

(3)

6.3.3 Amplified Spontaneous Emission

192

(12)

6.3.3.1 Gain

192

(5)

6.3.3.2 Reversible Degradation in ASE

197

(5)

6.3.3.3 ASE in Fibers

202

(2)

6.3.4 Polymer Optical Fiber Amplifiers

204

(7)

6.3.4.1 Laser Dyes

204

(1)

6.3.4.2 Lanthanide Complexes

205

(6)

6.3.5 Applications

211

(2)

Chapter 7 Optical Switching

213

(62)

7.1 Electrooptic Switching

213

(33)

7.1.1 Electrooptic Modulation

215

(23)

7.1.1.1 Theory of Electrooptic Modulation in a Mach-Zehnder Interferometer

215

(6)

7.1.1.2 Experimental Technique to Measure Electrooptic Coefficients

221

(3)

7.1.1.3 Electrooptic Modulation in a Polymer Optical Fiber

224

(14)

7.1.2 Electrooptic Devices

238

(8)

7.2 All-Optical Switching

246

(29)

7.2.1 Introduction

246

(1)

7.2.2 Intensity-Dependent Phase Shift in Polymer Waveguide and Fibers

247

(6)

7.2.3 Optical Devices in Polymer Fibers

253

(8)

7.2.3.1 Sagnac Device

253

(3)

7.2.3.2 Dual Core Polymer Fiber Switch

256

(5)

7.2.4 Optical Bistability and Multistability

261

(14)

7.2.4.1 Multistability of a Fabry-Perot Interferometer with End Reflectors

262

(7)

7.2.4.2 Multistability of a Fabry-Perot Interferometer due to Fresnel Reflections

269

(2)

7.2.4.3 Comparison of the Fresnel and Fabry-Perot Results

271

(2)

7.2.4.4 Graphical Solution to Transcendental Equations

273

(2)

Chapter 8 Structured Fibers and Specialty Applications

275

(40)

8.1 Bragg Gratings

275

(9)

8.1.1 Theory

276

(2)

8.1.2 The Bragg Condition, K = 2β

278

(2)

8.1.3 Bragg Gratings in Polymer Fibers

280

(2)

8.1.4 Applications

282

(2)

8.1.4.1 Spectrometer

282

(1)

8.1.4.2 Wavelength Division Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

282

(2)

8.2 Advanced Structured Fibers

284

(12)

8.2.1 Imaging Fibers

284

(1)

8.2.2 Capillary Tubes

285

(2)

8.2.3 Photonic Crystal Fibers

287

(9)

8.2.3.1 Two Parallel Waveguides

287

(2)

8.2.3.2 Infinite Number of Parallel Waveguides

289

(3)

8.2.3.3 Holey Fiber

292

(4)

8.3 Photorefraction

296

(8)

8.3.1 Theory

296

(3)

8.3.1.1 Two-Beam Coupling

296

(3)

8.3.2 Real-Time Holography in a Polymer Fiber

299

(3)

8.3.3 Phase Conjugation in a Polymer Fiber

302

(2)

8.4 Stress and Temperature Sensors

304

(6)

8.4.1 Discrete Sensors

304

(1)

8.4.2 Distributed Sensors

305

(5)

8.5 Chemical Sensors

310

(2)

8.5.1 Single-Agent Sensors

310

(1)

8.5.2 Artificial Nose

311

(1)

8.6 Appendix Coupled Wave Equation

312

(3)

Chapter 9 Smart Fibers and Materials

315

(46)

9.1 Smart Materials

315

(2)

9.1.1 Introduction

315

(1)

9.1.2 Photostriction

315

(1)

9.1.3 Smart Structures

316

(1)

9.2 Photomechanical Effects

317

(33)

9.2.1 Theory

318

(3)

9.2.1.1 Theory of Strain

318

(2)

9.2.1.2 Nonlocal Response

320

(1)

9.2.2 Mechanisms

321

(12)

9.2.2.1 Photothermal Heating

321

(1)

9.2.2.2 Photo-Isomerization

321

(2)

9.2.2.3 Electrostriction

323

(7)

9.2.2.4 Molecular Reorientation

330

(3)

9.2.2.5 Electron Cloud Deformation

333

(1)

9.2.3 Experimental Examples

333

(17)

9.2.3.1 The First Demonstration of an All-Optical Photomechanical System — Nano-Stabilization

334

(4)

9.2.3.2 Mesoscale Photomechanical Devices and Multistability

338

(5)

9.2.3.3 Optical Tunable Filter and All-Optical Switching

343

(2)

9.2.3.4 Stabilizing a Sheet with an MPU

345

(3)

9.2.3.5 Transverse Photomechanical Actuation

348

(2)

9.3 The Future of Smart Photonic Materials

350

(11)

9.3.1 Introduction

350

(1)

9.3.2 Making a Series of MPUs in a Single Fiber

350

(2)

9.3.3 The Two-MPU System

352

(4)

9.3.3.1 CASE I: Photomechanical MPU #1; Passive MPU #2; Light Source with Wavelengths λ1 and λ2

352

(1)

9.3.3.2 CASE II: Passive MPU #1; Photomechanical MPU #2; Light Source with Wavelength λ

353

(1)

9.3.3.3 CASE III: Photomechanical MPU #1 and MPU #2; Light Source with Wavelength λ

353

(3)

9.3.4 Smart Threads and Fabrics

356

(1)

9.3.5 Transverse Actuation

357

(1)

9.3.6 Crack Formation Sensing and Prevention

358

(1)

9.3.7 Noise Reduction

359

(1)

9.3.8 Conclusion

360

(1)

Chapter 10 Conclusion

361

(2)

Bibliography

363

(8)

Index

371

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Polymer Fiber Optics: Materials, Physics, and Applications

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Polymer Fiber Optics: Materials, Physics, and Applications

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