Polymers for Dental and Orthopedic Applications

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ISBN: 9780849315305 | 0849315301
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 11/20/2006

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Recent advances not only in the creation of new polymers but also in their processing and production have ushered in huge strides in a variety of biomedical and clinical areas. Orthopedics and dentistry are two such areas that benefit immensely from developments in polymer science and technology. Polymers for Dental and Orthopedic Applications examines the most current topics in this expanding field with an emphasis on technological evolution and clinical impacts.Surveying major progress in polymer science and technology for dental, maxillofacial, and orthopedic applications, this book provides a unique illustration of the conceptual development of novel biomaterials and processes designed to meet targeted clinical needs. Two preeminent scientists lead a close-knit team of international experts with extensive experience in product development, bioengineering, education, and clinical applications. Ranging from polymeric materials for dental and maxillofacial application to joint repair and replacement, polymeric composites, and tissue engineering, the book also examines topics that are common to both dental and orthopedic fields, such as osseointegration and infection management.Explore the current status and future possibilities of polymeric biomaterials in Polymers for Dental and Orthopedic Applications. A unique blend of technical information and practical insight, this reference fosters the continued growth of a critically important field.

SECTION A Introductory Notes

Chapter 1 Events Propelling the Use of Polymers in Dental and Orthopedic Applications

(10)

Waleed S.W. Shalaby and Shalaby W. Shalaby

1.1 Introduction

(1)

1.2 Technological Events

(1)

1.2.1 Development of New Synthetic, Biosynthetic, and Modified Natural Polymers

(1)

1.2.2 Development of New Processes to Modulate Properties of Biomedical Polymers and Implants

(1)

1.2.3 Advanced Fiber and Microfiber Processing

(1)

1.3 Medically Related Events

(3)

1.3.1 Clinically Related Events

(1)

1.3.2 Biomedical Engineering Driven Events

(1)

1.3.3 Damage-Control Associated Events

(1)

1.4 Socioeconomic Events

(1)

1.5 Conclusion and Perspective on the Future

(1)

References

(4)

SECTION B Development and Application of New Systems

Chapter 2 Composites for Dental Restoratives

(56)

Norbert Moszner and Ulrich Salz

2.1 Introduction

(9)

2.1.1 General Description of Dental Restoratives

(4)

2.1.2 State of the Art of Dental Restoratives

(3)

2.1.3 Improvements of Dental Composites

(2)

2.2 Filler-Component-Based Improvements of Dental Restoratives

(8)

2.2.1 Reduction of Shrinkage Stress

(3)

2.2.2 Nanoparticles and Composite Reinforcement

(1)

2.2.3 Condensable and Flowable Composites

(1)

2.2.4 Bioactive Restoratives

(2)

2.2.5 Special Additives

(1)

2.3 New Monomers for Dental Restoratives

(26)

2.3.1 Ring-Opening Monomers

(1)

2.3.1.1 Causes of Polymerization Shrinkage

(1)

2.3.1.2 Shrinkage Reduction by Ring-Opening Polymerization of Cyclic Monomers

(1)

2.3.1.3 Spiro Orthocarbonates

(1)

2.3.1.4 Cationic Ring-Opening Polymerization of SOCs and Cyclic Ethers

(1)

2.3.1.5 Cyclic Acetales, Allyl Sulfides, and Vinylcyclopropanes

(3)

2.3.2 Liquid-crystalline Monomers

(1)

2.3.2.1 Liquid-Crystalline State and Liquid-Crystalline Polymers

(1)

2.3.2.2 Liquid-Crystalline Cross-linkers

(1)

2.3.3 Branched and Dendritic Monomers

(1)

2.3.3.1 Branched and Dendritic Polymers

(1)

2.3.3.2 Branched and Dendritic Methacrylates

(2)

2.3.4 Monomers for Compomers

(2)

2.3.5 Ormocers

(3)

2.3.6 Fluorinated Bis-GMA Analogs and Substitutes

(1)

2.3.6.1 Fluorinated Bis-GMA Analogs

(1)

2.3.6.2 Bis-GMA substitutes

(1)

2.4 Conclusions and Perspective on the Future

(1)

References

(11)

Chapter 3 Enamel and Dentin Adhesion

(76)

Ulrich Salz, Norbert Moszner, and Jörg Zimmermann

3.1 Introduction

(6)

3.1.1 Clinical Requirements

(1)

3.1.2 Postoperative Sensitivity

(1)

3.1.3 Reasons for the Replacement of Fillings

(1)

3.1.4 Evolution of the Adhesive Technique

(3)

3.2 Characterization and Pretreatment of Enamel and Dentin

(14)

3.2.1 Histology of Enamel and Dentin

(1)

3.2.1.1 Enamel

(1)

3.2.1.2 Dentin

(1)

3.2.1.3 Chemical and Histological Buildup of Sclerotic Modified Dentin

(1)

3.2.2 Chemical Composition

(1)

3.2.3 Structure of Hydroxyapatite

(2)

3.2.4 Structure of Collagen

(1)

3.2.5 Physical Properties of Enamel and Dentin

(1)

3.2.5.1 Anisotropy of Enamel

(1)

3.2.5.2 Anisotropy of Dentin

(1)

3.2.5.3 Comparison of Selected Properties of Enamel and Dentin

(1)

3.2.6 Pretreatment of Enamel and Dentin

(1)

3.2.6.1 Adhesion to Enamel

(1)

3.2.6.2 Adhesion to Dentin

(3)

3.3 Physical and Chemical Aspects of Adhesion

(5)

3.3.1 Basics of Adhesion

(1)

3.3.2 Wetting and Penetration of Dental Substrates

(1)

3.3.3 Adhesion by Micromechanical Retention

(1)

3.3.4 Adhesion by Chemical Bonding and Physical Forces

(2)

3.4 Methods for the Assessment of Enamel—Dentin Adhesion

(11)

3.4.1 Bond Strength Measurements

(1)

3.4.1.1 Methods and Variables

(1)

3.4.1.2 Shear Bond Strength

(1)

3.4.1.3 Push Out Test

(1)

3.4.1.4 Tensile Bond Strength

(1)

3.4.1.5 Microtensile Bond Strength

100

(2)

3.4.2 Marginal Adaptation

102

(1)

3.4.3 Morphology of the Interface

103

(1)

3.4.4 Interfacial Chemistry

103

(3)

3.5 Chemistry of Enamel and Dentin Adhesives

106

(16)

3.5.1 Introduction

106

(3)

3.5.2 Acidic Bonding Agents

109

(1)

3.5.2.1 Phosphorus-Containing Monomers

109

(1)

3.5.2.2 COOH-Group Containing Monomers and Polymerizable Carboxamides

113

(1)

3.5.2.3 Combinations of Aldehydes and Ketones and Monomers with Active Hydrogen

118

(1)

3.5.2.4 Cyanoacrylates, Isocyanates, and Cyanurate

120

(2)

3.6 Interactions Influencing Enamel--Dentin Adhesion

122

(2)

3.6.1 Saliva or Blood Contamination

122

(1)

3.6.2 Disinfecting Agents

122

(1)

3.6.3 Temporary Materials

123

(1)

3.6.4 Tooth Bleaching

123

(1)

3.7 Conclusion and Perspective on the Future

124

(1)

References

125

(20)

Chapter 4 Application of Polymers in the Therapy for Gingivitis, Periodontitis, and Treatment of Dry Socket

145

(24)

Shalaby W. Shalaby and Ulrich Salz

4.1 Introduction

146

(1)

4.2 General Approaches to the Therapy for Gingivitis and Periodontitis

146

(4)

4.2.1 General Approaches to the Therapy for Gingivitis

146

(1)

4.2.1.1 Chronic Gingivitis

146

(1)

4.2.1.1 Acute Gingival Diseases

147

(1)

4.2.1.3 Gingival Overgrowth

147

(1)

4.2.1.4 Role of Polymers in the Therapy for Gingivitis

147

(1)

4.2.2 General Approaches to Therapy for Periodontitis

147

(1)

4.2.2.1 Scaling and Root Planing

147

(1)

4.2.2.2 Surgical Therapy

148

(1)

4.2.2.3 Pharmacological Therapy

148

(1)

4.2.2.4 Periodontal Regeneration

148

(1)

4.2.2.5 Role of Polymers in the Therapy for Periodontitis

148

(2)

4.3 Evolution of Polymer Applications in the Therapy for Gingivitis and Periodontitis

150

(10)

4.3.1 Polymers for Controlled Drug Delivery

150

(4)

4.3.2 Use of Polymers in Conjunction with Tissue Regeneration

154

(5)

4.3.3 Pertinent Factors to the Effectiveness of Implemented Therapies

159

(1)

4.4 Dry Socket and Use of Polymeric Systems in Its Treatment

160

(2)

4.5 Conclusion and Perspective on the Future

162

(1)

References

163

(6)

Chapter 5 Maxillofacial Bone Augmentation and Replacement

169

(16)

Guigen Zhang

5.1 Introduction

169

(1)

5.2 Bone Reconstruction and Healing

170

(1)

5.3 Osseous Defects in the Maxillofacial Bone

171

(1)

5.4 Methods for Maxillofacial Bone Augmentation

171

(3)

5.4.1 Procedures for Minor Maxillofacial Bone Augmentation

172

(1)

5.4.2 Autogenous Bone Grafts

172

(1)

5.4.3 Allogenic Bone Grafts

173

(1)

5.4.4 Xenogenic Bone Grafts

173

(1)

5.5 Synthetic Materials for Maxillofacial Bone Augmentation and Replacement

174

(4)

5.5.1 Tricalcium Phosphate and Hydroxyapatite

174

(1)

5.5.2 Active Glass Ceramics

175

(1)

5.5.3 Coral Derived Granules

175

(1)

5.5.4 Tissue Engineering Approaches Using Synthetic Materials

175

(3)

5.6 Other Methods for Maxillofacial Bone Augmentation

178

(1)

5.6.1 Distraction Osteogenesis

178

(1)

5.6.2 Ultrasonic Treatment

178

(1)

5.7 Conclusion and Perspective on the Future

179

(1)

References

180

(5)

Chapter 6 Polymeric Biomaterials for Articulating Joint Repair and Total Joint Replacement

185

(32)

Shalaby W. Shalaby, Sheila D. Nagatomi, and Shawn J. Peniston

6.1 Introduction

185

(2)

6.2 Evolution in Articulating Joint Repair and Total Replacement

187

(16)

6.2.1 Nonabsorbable Polymers, Composites, and Their Applications

188

(7)

6.2.2 Absorbable Polymers, Composites, and Their Applications

195

(2)

6.2.3 Injectable, Intra-articular Polymeric Systems and Their Applications

197

(3)

6.2.4 Tissue Engineering

200

(3)

6.3 Evolution of Support Structures

203

(3)

6.3.1 Ligaments and Tendons

204

(1)

6.3.2 Suture Anchor and Allied Devices

205

(1)

6.4 Conclusion and Prospective on the Future

206

(1)

References

207

(10)

SECTION C Development in Preparative, Processing, and Evaluation Methods

Chapter 7 Physicochemical Properties of Bioactive Polymeric Composites: Effects of Resin Matrix and the Type of Amorphous Calcium Phosphate Filler

217

(26)

J.M. Antonucci and D. Skrtic

7.1 Introduction

218

(1)

7.2 Amorphous Calcium Phosphate (ACP): Chemistry and Importance in Dentistry

218

(2)

7.3 ACP Based Composites: Physicochemical and Biocompatibility Aspects

220

(3)

7.4 Methods and Techniques for Physicochemical Evaluation of Copolymers and ACP Composites

223

(4)

7.4.1 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy, and FTIR-Microspectroscopy (FTIR-M)

223

(1)

7.4.2 Particle Size Distribution (PSD)

224

(1)

7.4.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

224

(1)

7.4.4 Thermogravimetry

224

(1)

7.4.5 Chemical Analysis

225

(1)

7.4.6 Polymerization Shrinkage (PS)

225

(1)

7.4.7 Mechanical Strength

226

(1)

7.4.8 Gravimetry and Water Sorption

226

(1)

7.4.9 Ion Release

227

(1)

7.4.10 Cytotoxicity Testing

227

(1)

7.5 Physicochemical Properties of ACP Fillers, Copolymers, and Composites

227

(12)

7.5.1 ACP Fillers: Structure, Morphology, and Particle Size Distribution

227

(5)

7.5.2 Copolymers and ACP Composites: Effects of Resin Matrix and Filler Type on Chemical and Mechanical Performance

232

(2)

7.5.3 ACP Composites: In Vitro Cytotoxicity

234

(5)

7.6 Conclusion and Perspective on the Future

239

(1)

References

239

(4)

Chapter 8 New Approaches to Improved Polymer Implant Toughness and Modulus

243

(20)

Meng Deng and Shalaby W. Shalaby

8.1 Introduction

243

(1)

8.2 New Approaches to Polymer Implants of Improved Toughness and Modulus

244

(15)

8.2.1 Composite Technology

244

(1)

8.2.1.1 Fiber Reinforcement

244

(1)

8.2.1.2 Particulate Reinforcement

246

(1)

8.2.1.3 Nanocomposites

249

(1)

8.2.2 Self-Reinforced Composites

250

(1)

8.2.2.1 UHMWPE

250

(1)

8.2.2.2 PMMA

251

(1)

8.2.2.3 Biodegradable Polymers

252

(2)

8.2.3 Cross-Linking

254

(1)

8.2.3.1 Radiation-Induced Cross-Linking

254

(1)

8.2.3.2 Chemical-Induced Cross-Linking

255

(1)

8.2.4 Solid-State Orientation

255

(4)

8.3 Conclusion and Perspective on the Future

259

(1)

References

259

(4)

Chapter 9 Physicochemical Modification of Polymers for Bone-Implant Osseointegration

263

(40)

Shalaby W. Shalaby and Bruce L. Anneaux

9.1 Introduction

264

(1)

9.2 Technology Evolution of Physicochemical Surface Modification and Bulk Orientation

265

(9)

9.2.1 Surface Sulfonation of Model Polyolefins

265

(1)

9.2.2 Surface Phosphonylation of Model Polyolefins and Polyether-ether Ketone (PEEK)

266

(4)

9.2.3 Surface Microtexturing of Model Polyolefins and PEEK-Based Substrates

270

(1)

9.2.4 Orthogonal Solid-State Orientation of Crystalline Thermoplastic Polymers

271

(3)

9.3 Interaction of Cells with Chemically Modified Surfaces

274

(5)

9.3.1 Interaction of Bacteria

274

(2)

9.3.2 Interaction of Osteoblasts

276

(3)

9.4 Osseointegration of Phosphonylated Polyolefins and PEEK Rods as Tibial Implants

279

(3)

9.4.1 Osseointegration of Chemically and Physicochemically Modified Polyethylene and Propylene Rods as Goat Tibial Implants

279

(2)

9.4.2 Osseointegration of Phosphonylated PEEK Rods as Rabbit Tibial Implants

281

(1)

9.5 Osseointegration of Chemically and Physicochemically Modified PEEK-based Rods as Goat Mandibular Implants

282

(6)

9.5.1 Preparation of Implantable Sterilized Rods

282

(1)

9.5.2 In Vivo Study of Sterilized Rod Implants Using Goat Mandibles

283

(1)

9.5.2.1 Animal Model and Surgical Protocol

283

(1)

9.5.2.2 Harvesting of Implants in Bone and Their Biomechanical Testing

284

(1)

9.5.2.3 Histological Evaluation

284

(1)

9.5.2.4 Outcome of the In Vivo Study

285

(3)

9.6 Osseointegration of Phosphonylated PEEK and CFR-PEEK Endosteal Dental Implants

288

(10)

9.6.1 Development of a New Endosteal Dental Implant Design for Evaluation in Beagles

289

(1)

9.6.2 Development of a Beagle Animal Model and Pilot Study of the EDI

290

(1)

9.6.2.1 Beagle Mandibular Model and Placement Protocols

290

(1)

9.6.2.2 Pilot Study of the EDIs

291

(1)

9.6.3 Biomechanical Evaluation of Osseointegration of Metallic and PEEK-based EDIs

291

(4)

9.6.4 Histomorphometric Evaluation of Osseointegration of Metallic and PEEK-Based EDIs

295

(3)

9.7 Conclusion and Perspective on the Future

298

(1)

References

299

(4)

Chapter 10 Surface Modification of Articulating Surfaces and Tribological Evaluation

303

(34)

Sunita P. Ho, Rebecca A. Caldwell, and Martine LaBerge

10.1 Introduction

304

(1)

10.2 Total Joint Replacement (TJR) Prostheses — UHMWPE and CoCr Alloy Components

304

(4)

10.2.1 CoCr Femoral Component

304

(2)

10.2.2 Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE) Tibial Component

306

(2)

10.3 Wear of UHMWPE Component in TJR Prosthesis

308

(2)

10.3.1 Clinical Relevance of UHMWPE Wear Debris

308

(1)

10.3.2 Factors Related to UHMWPE Wear Debris Generation

309

(1)

10.4 Friction and Wear of UHMWPE at a Nanoscale

310

(5)

10.4.1 Nanotribology of CoCr-UHMWPE TJR Prosthesis Using Atomic Force Microscopy

311

(1)

10.4.2 Effects of Sample Preparation Temperature on Nanostructure of UHMWPE

312

(1)

10.4.3 Nanomechanical Properties of Compression Molded UHMWPE

313

(2)

10.5 Surface Modification of Polymers

315

(1)

10.5.1 Thickness of Surface Modification

315

(1)

10.5.2 Surface Rearrangement

315

(1)

10.6 Classification of Surface Modifications

316

(7)

10.6.1 Chemical Modification

316

(2)

10.6.2 Physical Modification — Ultraviolet Radiation

318

(1)

10.6.3 Physical Modification — Electron Beam Radiation

319

(1)

10.6.4 Physical Modification — Gamma Irradiation

319

(1)

10.6.5 Physical Modification — Ion Beam Implantation

320

(1)

10.6.6 Physical Modification — Plasma

320

(2)

10.6.7 Physical Modification — Glow Discharge

322

(1)

10.7 Biologically Functional Modifications of Polyethylene

323

(2)

10.8 Miscellaneous Surface Modifications

325

(1)

10.9 Concerns of Surface Modification

326

(1)

10.10 Conclusion and Perspective on the Future

326

(1)

References

327

(10)

Chapter 11 Histopathological Evaluation of Hard Tissue Implant Performance

337

(14)

Mei-Shu Shih

11.1 Introduction

337

(1)

11.2 General Pathology

338

(1)

11.3 Histopathological Evaluation

339

(4)

11.3.1 Hard Tissue Histological Preparation

339

(1)

11.3.2 Histopathological Evaluation of Hard Tissue Integration with Polymer Implant Device

340

(1)

11.3.2.1 Histopathological Evaluation of Articular Cartilage Repair

340

(1)

11.3.2.2 Histopathology Evaluation of Bone Void Repair

341

(2)

11.4 Recent Advances in Evaluating Hard Tissues

343

(2)

11.4.1 Cartilage Repair

344

(1)

11.4.1.1 Diffraction Enhanced Imaging (DEI)

344

(1)

11.4.1.2 Quantitative Magnetic Resonance Imaging (qMRI)

344

(1)

11.4.1.3 Optical Coherence Tomographic Imaging (OCT)

344

(1)

11.4.2 Bone Void Repair

345

(1)

11.4.2.1 Peripheral Quantitative Computed Tomography (pQCT)

345

(1)

11.4.2.2 Microcomputed Tomography (micro-CT)

345

(1)

11.5 Conclusion and Perspective on the Future

345

(1)

References

346

(5)

SECTION D Advanced Biomaterials, Technologies, and Sought Applications

Chapter 12 Mechanical Adaptation of Bone: Bioreactors for Orthopedic Tissue Engineering Applications

351

(16)

Jiro Nagatomi

12.1 Introduction

351

(1)

12.2 Bone Tissue Development, Homeostasis, and Repair

352

(3)

12.2.1 Skeletal Tissue Development and Maintenance

352

(1)

12.2.2 Skeletal Cells and Their Functions

353

(1)

12.2.3 Relationship Between Physiological Loading and Skeletal Tissue

354

(1)

12.3 Mechanobiology of Bone

355

(3)

12.2.1 In Vivo Studies of Mechanobiology

355

(1)

12.3.2 In Vitro Studies of Mechanobiology

356

(1)

12.3.3 Traditional and Current Theories of Mechanobiology of Bone

357

(1)

12.4 Advances in Bioreactors for Bone Tissue Engineering Applications

358

(3)

12.4.1 Motivations and Functional Requirements

358

(1)

12.4.2 Current Designs of Bioreactors

359

(2)

12.4.3 Assessment of Performance of Bioreactors

361

(1)

12.5 Conclusion and Perspective on the Future

361

(1)

References

362

(5)

Chapter 13 Synthetic Scaffolds Used for Orthopedic Tissue Engineering

367

(24)

Mark Borden

13.1 Introduction

367

(1)

13.2 Orthopedic Tissue Engineering

368

(14)

13.2.1 Bone Scaffolds

369

(4)

13.2.2 Ligament and Tendon Scaffolds

373

(5)

13.2.3 Articular Cartilage Scaffolds

378

(4)

13.3 Conclusion and Perspective on the Future

382

(1)

References

383

(8)

Chapter 14 Polymeric Controlled Release Systems for Management of Bone Infection

391

(22)

Marc Shalaby and Shalaby W. Shalaby

14.1 Introduction

391

(3)

14.1.1 Common Causes of Different Forms of Osteomyelitis and Their Diagnoses

392

(1)

14.1.2 Device-Centered Osteomyelitis

393

(1)

14.2 Critical Review of Current Treatment Options for Osteomyelitis

394

(7)

14.2.1 Systemic Treatment

394

(1)

14.2.2 Significance of Osteomyelitis and Need for New Approaches to its Management

395

(1)

14.2.3 Local Drug Delivery

396

(4)

14.2.4 Staphylococcus aureus Osteomyelitis — Special Considerations for Treatment

400

(1)

14.3 Evolution in Bone Infection Management and Development of New Controlled Drug Delivery Systems

401

(6)

14.3.1 Controlled Release Systems Using Traditional Absorbable and Water-Soluble Polymers

401

(2)

14.3.2 Controlled Release of Antibiotics from Absorbable Gel-Forming Formulations

403

(2)

14.3.3 Advances toward New Approaches to the Treatment of Osteomyelitis

405

(2)

14.4 Conclusion and Perspective on the Future

407

(1)

References

407

(6)

Index

413

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Polymers for Dental and Orthopedic Applications

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials