Practical Environmental Analysis

, by Radojevic, Miroslav; Bashkin, Vladimir N.

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ISBN: 9780854046799 | 0854046798
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 5/30/2006

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New techniques, improvements in understanding and changes in regulations relating to environmental analysis mean that students, technicians and lecturers alike need an up-to-date guide to practical environmental analysis. This unique book provides detailed instructions for practical experiments in environmental analysis. The comprehensive coverage includes the chemical analysis of important pollutants in air, water, soil and plant tissue, with experiments generally requiring only basic laboratory equipment and instrumentation. The principles behind each method are explained and the importance of various pollutants in the environment is discussed. Also included are suggestions for projects and worked examples, and appendices cover environmental standards, practical safety and good laboratory practice. Building on the foundations laid by the highly-acclaimed first edition, this revised and updated new edition is certain to be valued as an indispensable guide to practical environmental analysis by students and lecturers from a wide range of scientific disciplines.

Chapter 1 Introduction

(44)

1.1 The Environment

(9)

1.1.1 Biogeochemical Cycles

(3)

1.1.2 Environmental Pollution

(4)

1.1.3 Effects of Pollution

(1)

1.1.4 Environmental Standards

(1)

1.2 Environmental Analysis

(3)

1.2.1 Aims of Analysis

(1)

1.2.2 Types of Analysis

(1)

1.2.3 Stages of Analysis

(1)

1.3 Sampling and Storage

(3)

1.3.1 Sampling

(1)

1.3.2 Storage

(2)

1.4 Sample Treatment

(1)

1.5 Analytical Methods

(3)

1.5.1 Selection of Method

(1)

1.5.2 Classical Analysis

(2)

1.5.3 Instrumental Analysis

(1)

1.5.4 Test Kits and Portable Laboratories

(1)

1.6 Standardisation and Calibration

(2)

1.6.1 Standardisation

(1)

1.6.2 Calibration

(1)

1.6.3 Standard Addition

(1)

1.6.4 Blanks

(1)

1.7 Analytical Data

(14)

1.7.1 Concentration Units

(2)

1.7.2 Significant Figures

(1)

1.7.3 Accuracy and Precision

(1)

1.7.4 Errors

(1)

1.7.5 Reporting of Results

(2)

1.7.6 Rejection of Data

(1)

1.7.7 Correlation Coefficient

(3)

1.7.8 Linear Regression

(1)

1.7.9 Detection Limits

(1)

1.7.10 Reference Materials

(1)

1.7.11 Quality Control

(2)

1.8 Common Problems of Environmental Analysis

(1)

1.9 Ethics

(2)

1.10 A Word of Advice

(1)

Exercises and Information

(5)

Questions and Problems

(2)

Suggestions for Projects

(1)

Reference

(1)

Further Reading

(2)

Chapter 2 Rainwater Analysis

(28)

2.1 Acid Rain

(7)

2.1.1 Causes of Acid Rain

(2)

2.1.2 Effects of Acid Rain

(2)

2.1.3 Control of Acid Rain

(1)

2.2 Sampling and Analysis

(3)

2.3 Data Analysis and Interpretation

(4)

Questions and Problems

(2)

2.4 pH, Conductivity, and Major Anions

(6)

2.4.1 Methodology

(1)

2.4.2 Bottle Preparation

(1)

2.4.3 Sampling

(1)

2.4.4 Conductivity

(1)

2.4.5 pH

(1)

2.4.6 Ion Chromatography (Chloride, Nitrate, and Sulfate)

(2)

2.5 Major Cations

(3)

2.5.1 Alkali Metals and Alkaline Earth Metals (Na, K, Mg, and Ca)

(2)

2.5.2 Ammonium

(1)

2.6 Heavy Metals

(1)

Exercises and Information

(4)

Questions and Problems

(3)

Suggestions for Projects

(1)

References

(1)

Further Reading

(1)

Chapter 3 Air Analysis

(62)

3.1 Introduction

(18)

3.1.1 The Atmosphere

(1)

3.1.2 Air Pollution

(2)

3.1.3 Urban Smog

(6)

3.1.4 Haze

(1)

3.1.5 Indoor Air Pollution

(1)

3.1.6 Control of Air Pollution

(1)

3.1.7 Concentration Units

(1)

3.1.8 Measurement of Air Pollution

(1)

3.1.9 Reporting Air Quality

(2)

Questions and Problems

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

(1)

3.2 Sampling

(6)

3.2.1 Introduction

(1)

3.2.2 Absorption Train

(1)

3.2.3 Impregnated Filters

(1)

3.2.4 Diffusion Tubes

(1)

3.2.5 Denuder Tubes

(1)

3.2.6 Solid Adsorbents

(1)

3.2.7 Indicator Tubes

(1)

3.2.8 Cryogenic Trapping

(1)

3.2.9 Grab Sampling

(1)

3.2.10 Aerosol Sampling

(1)

Questions and Problems

(1)

3.3 Sulfur Dioxide

(8)

3.3.1 Introduction

(3)

3.3.2 Methodology

100

(1)

3.3.3 Materials

100

(1)

3.3.4 Experimental Procedure

101

(3)

Questions and Problems

104

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

105

(1)

3.4 Nitrogen Dioxide

105

(4)

3.4.1 Introduction

105

(1)

3.4.2 Methodology

106

(1)

3.4.3 Materials

107

(1)

3.4.4 Experimental Procedure

107

(1)

Questions and Problems

108

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

109

(1)

3.5 Ozone

109

(4)

3.5.1 Introduction

109

(2)

3.5.2 Methodology

111

(1)

3.5.3 Materials

111

(1)

3.5.4 Experimental Procedure

111

(2)

Questions and Problems

113

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

113

(1)

3.6 Ammonia

113

(4)

3.6.1 Introduction

113

(1)

3.6.2 Methodology

114

(1)

3.6.3 Materials

114

(1)

3.6.4 Experimental Procedure

114

(2)

Questions and Problems

116

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

116

(1)

3.7 Hydrogen Chloride

117

(4)

3.7.1 Introduction

117

(1)

3.7.2 Methodology

118

(1)

3.7.3 Materials

118

(1)

3.7.4 Experimental Procedure

119

(1)

Questions and Problems

120

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

121

(1)

3.8 Atmospheric Aerosol: Heavy Metals and Major Constituents

121

(14)

3.8.1 Introduction

121

(2)

3.8.2 Sampling and Analysis

123

(3)

3.8.3 Sampling Procedure and Mass Determination

126

(1)

3.8.4 Heavy Metals

127

(2)

3.8.5 Major Components

129

(2)

Questions and Problems

131

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

131

(1)

References

132

(1)

Further Reading

132

(3)

Chapter 4 Water Analysis

135

(131)

4.1 Introduction

135

(19)

4.1.1 The Hydrosphere

135

(1)

4.1.2 Water Pollution

136

(2)

4.1.3 Biochemical Oxygen Demand

138

(1)

4.1.4 Eutrophication

138

(1)

4.1.5 Acidification

139

(1)

4.1.6 Salinity

140

(1)

4.1.7 Coastal Pollution

141

(2)

4.1.8 Groundwater Pollution

143

(1)

4.1.9 Wastewater Treatment

144

(2)

4.1.10 Potable Water Treatment

146

(1)

4.1.11 Water Analysis

147

(2)

4.1.12 Sampling and Storage

149

(2)

4.1.13 Filtration

151

(1)

Questions and Problems

152

(1)

Suggestions for Project

153

(1)

4.2 Solids in Waters

154

(8)

4.2.1 Introduction

154

(1)

4.2.2 Methodology

155

(2)

4.2.3 Total Solids

157

(1)

4.2.4 Total Dissolved Solids

157

(1)

4.2.5 Suspended Solids

158

(1)

4.2.6 Fixed and Volatile Solids

159

(1)

4.2.7 Settleable Solids

160

(1)

Questions and Problems

161

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

161

(1)

4.3 Electrochemical Measurements

162

(8)

4.3.1 pH

162

(2)

4.3.2 Conductivity

164

(1)

4.3.3 Redox Potential

165

(4)

Questions and Problems

169

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

170

(1)

4.4 Hardness

170

(5)

4.4.1 Introduction

170

(1)

4.4.2 Methodology

171

(1)

4.4.3 Materials

172

(1)

4.4.4 Experimental Procedure

173

(1)

Questions and Problems

174

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

174

(1)

4.5 Alkalinity

175

(7)

4.5.1 Introduction

175

(1)

4.5.2 Methodology

176

(1)

4.5.3 Materials

177

(1)

4.5.4 Experimental Procedure

177

(4)

Questions and Problems

181

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

181

(1)

4.6 Dissolved Oxygen

182

(7)

4.6.1 Introduction

182

(3)

4.6.2 Methodology

185

(1)

4.6.3 Materials

186

(1)

4.6.4 Experimental Procedure

186

(2)

Questions and Problems

188

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

188

(1)

4.7 Biochemical Oxygen Demand

189

(7)

4.7.1 Introduction

189

(3)

4.7.2 Methodology

192

(1)

4.7.3 Materials

193

(1)

4.7.4 Experimental Procedure

193

(2)

Questions and Problems

195

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

196

(1)

4.8 Chemical Oxygen Demand

196

(7)

4.8.1 Introduction

196

(3)

4.8.2 Methodology

199

(1)

4.8.3 Materials

199

(1)

4.8.4 Experimental Procedure

200

(2)

Questions and Problems

202

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

203

(1)

4.9 Chlorophyll

203

(5)

4.9.1 Introduction

203

(1)

4.9.2 Methodology

204

(1)

4.9.3 Materials

204

(1)

4.9.4 Experimental Procedure

205

(2)

Questions and Problems

207

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

207

(1)

4.10 Nitrogen

208

(17)

4.10.1 Introduction

208

(1)

4.10.2 Ammonia

209

(6)

4.10.3 Nitrate

215

(5)

4.10.4 Nitrite

220

(2)

4.10.5 Organic Nitrogen

222

(2)

Questions and Problems

224

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

225

(1)

4.11 Phosphorus

225

(9)

4.11.1 Introduction

225

(4)

4.11.2 Methodology

229

(3)

4.11.3 Orthophosphate

4.11.4 Condensed Phosphatff

232

(1)

4.11.5 Organic Phosphorus

233

(1)

Questions and Problems

233

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

234

(1)

4.12 Chloride

234

(3)

4.12.1 Introduction

234

(1)

4.12.2 Methodology

235

(1)

4.12.3 Materials

236

(1)

4.12.4 Experimental Procedure

236

(1)

Questions and Problems

237

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

237

(1)

4.13 Fluoride

237

(2)

4.13.1 Introduction

237

(1)

4.13.2 Methodology

238

(1)

4.13.3 Materials

238

(1)

4.13.4 Experimental Procedure

238

(1)

Questions and Problems

239

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

239

(1)

4.14 Sulfate

239

(4)

4.14.1 Introduction

239

(2)

4.14.2 Methodology

241

(1)

4.14.3 Materials

241

(1)

4.14.4 Experimental Procedure

241

(1)

Questions and Problems

242

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

243

(1)

4.15 Iron

243

(5)

4.15.1 Introduction

243

(1)

4.15.2 Methodology

244

(1)

4.15.3 Materials

245

(1)

4.15.4 Experimental Procedure

245

(2)

Questions and Problems

247

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

247

(1)

4.16 Heavy Metals

248

(11)

4.16.1 Introduction

248

(1)

4.16.2 Aluminium

249

(1)

4.16.3 Copper

250

(1)

4.16.4 Lead

250

(1)

4.16.5 Mercury

251

(1)

4.16.6 Tin

251

(1)

4.16.7 Analysis

252

(1)

4.16.8 Methodology

252

(1)

4.16.9 Materials

252

(1)

4.16.10 Experimental Procedure

253

(4)

Questions and Problems

257

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

258

(1)

4.17 Oil and Grease

259

(7)

4.17.1 Introduction

259

(1)

4.17.2 Methodology

260

(1)

4.17.3 Materials

260

(1)

4.17.4 Experimental Procedure

260

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

261

(1)

References

261

(1)

Further Reading

261

(5)

Chapter 5 Soil, Sediment, Sludge, and Dust Analysis

266

(97)

5.1 Introduction

266

(12)

5.1.1 The Pedosphere

266

(1)

5.1.2 Soil

267

(2)

5.1.3 Soil Pollution

269

(5)

5.1.4 Soil Remediation

274

(1)

5.1.5 Sewage Sludge

274

(2)

5.1.6 Sediment

276

(1)

5.1.7 Dust

277

(1)

5.2 Sampling and Sample Preparation

278

(6)

5.2.1 Sampling

278

(4)

5.2.2 Drying

282

(1)

5.2.3 Comminution

283

(1)

Questions and Problems

284

(1)

Suggestions for Project

284

(1)

5.3 Dissolution and Extraction

284

(10)

5.3.1 Fusion

287

(2)

5.3.2 Acid Digestion

289

(1)

5.3.3 Dissolution of Individual Elements

290

(2)

5.3.4 Extractions

292

(1)

Questions and Problems

293

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

294

(1)

5.4 Physical Parameters

294

(6)

5.4.1 Introduction

294

(1)

5.4.2 Bulk Density

295

(1)

5.4.3 Specific Gravity

296

(1)

5.4.4 Water Content

296

(1)

5.4.5 Loss-on-Ignition

297

(1)

5.4.6 Particle Size

298

(1)

Questions and Problems

299

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

300

(1)

5.5 Electrochemical Measurements

300

(7)

5.5.1 Introduction

300

(1)

5.5.2 Conductivity

301

(1)

5.5.3 pH

301

(2)

5.5.4 Redox Potential

303

(2)

Questions and Problems

305

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

306

(1)

5.6 Alkalinity

307

(2)

5.6.1 Introduction

307

(1)

5.6.2 Experimental Procedure

308

(1)

Questions and Problems

309

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

309

(1)

5.7 Soluble Ions

309

(3)

5.7.1 Introduction

309

(1)

5.7.2 Experimental Procedure

310

(1)

Questions and Problems

311

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

312

(1)

5.8 Organic Matter

312

(5)

5.8.1 Introduction

312

(1)

5.8.2 Methodology

313

(1)

5.8.3 Materials

313

(1)

5.8.4 Experimental Procedure

314

(2)

Questions and Problems

316

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

316

(1)

5.9 Nitrogen

317

(10)

5.9.1 Introduction

317

(1)

5.9.2 Organic Nitrogen

318

(2)

5.9.3 Exchangeable Ammonium

320

(1)

5.9.4 Extractable Nitrate

321

(2)

5.9.5 Extractable Nitrite

323

(1)

5.9.6 Mineralisable Nitrogen

323

(1)

5.9.7 Nitrogen-Mineralising Capacity

324

(2)

5.9.8 Ammonia–N in Fresh Sludge and Sediment Samples

326

(1)

Questions and Problems

326

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

326

(1)

5.10 Phosphorus

327

(5)

5.10.1 Introduction

327

(1)

5.10.2 Total Phosphorus, Total Organic Phosphorus, and Inorganic Phosphorus

328

(1)

5.10.3 Truog's Extraction

329

(1)

5.10.4 Olsen's Extraction

330

(1)

5.10.5 Acetic Acid Extraction

330

(1)

5.10.6 Water Extraction

331

(1)

5.10.7 Analysis

331

(1)

Questions and Problems

332

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

332

(1)

5.11 Sulfur

332

(2)

5.11.1 Introduction

332

(1)

5.11.2 Methodology

333

(1)

5.11.3 Experimental Procedure

333

(1)

5.12 Exchangeable Cations (Ca²+, Mg², K+, and Na+) and Cation Exchange Capacity

334

(5)

5.12.1 Introduction

334

(2)

5.12.2 Materials

336

(1)

5.12.3 Exchangeable Cations (Ca²+, Mg², K+, and Na+)

337

(1)

5.12.4 Cation Exchange Capacity

337

(1)

Questions and Problems

338

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

339

(1)

5.13 Heavy Metals

339

(24)

5.13.1 Introduction

339

(1)

5.13.2 Aluminium

340

(2)

5.13.3 Arsenic

342

(1)

5.13.4 Cadmium

342

(1)

5.13.5 Chromium

343

(1)

5.13.6 Lead

343

(3)

5.13.7 Manganese

346

(1)

5.13.8 Mercury

346

(1)

5.13.9 Nickel

346

(1)

5.13.10 Silicon

347

(1)

5.13.11 Zinc

347

(1)

5.13.12 Other Metals

348

(1)

5.13.13 Analysis

349

(1)

5.13.14 Methodology

349

(1)

5.13.15 Hydrofluoric Acid—Perchloric Acid Digestion

349

(1)

5.13.16 Nitric Acid Digestion

350

(1)

5.13.17 Aqua Regia Digestion

351

(1)

5.13.18 Nitric Acid—Hydrogen Peroxide Digestion

352

(1)

5.13.19 Cold Vapour Mercury Analysis

353

(3)

Questions and Problems

356

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

357

(1)

References

358

(1)

Further Reading

359

(4)

Chapter 6 Plant Analysis

363

(31)

6.1 Introduction

363

(8)

6.1.1 Plants and Pollution

366

(3)

6.1.2 Plant Analysis

369

(1)

Questions and Problems

370

(1)

6.2 Sampling and Sample Preparation

371

(4)

6.2.1 Plant Part

371

(1)

6.2.2 Time of Sampling

371

(2)

6.2.3 Methods of Sampling

373

(1)

6.2.4 Sample Preparation

373

(2)

Questions and Problems

375

(1)

Suggestions for Project

375

(1)

6.3 Digestion and Extraction

375

(4)

6.3.1 Introduction

375

(1)

6.3.2 Dry Ashing

376

(2)

6.3.3 Wet Ashing

378

(1)

Questions and Problems

379

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

379

(1)

6.4 Water Content and Ash Content

379

(2)

6.4.1 Water Content

379

(1)

6.4.2 Ash Content

380

(1)

6.4.3 Silica-Free Ash

380

(1)

Questions and Problems

381

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

381

(1)

6.5 Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur

381

(2)

6.5.1 Introduction

381

(1)

6.5.2 Nitrogen

382

(1)

6.5.3 Phosphorus

382

(1)

6.5.4 Sulfur

382

(1)

Questions and Problems

383

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

383

(1)

6.6 Potassium, Sodium, Calcium, and Magnesium

383

(1)

6.6.1 Introduction

383

(1)

6.6.2 Experimental Procedure

384

(1)

Questions and Problems

384

(1)

Suggestions for Project

384

(1)

6.7 Nitrate and Nitrite

384

(3)

6.7.1 Introduction

384

(2)

6.7.2 Methodology

386

(1)

6.7.3 Experimental Procedure

386

(1)

Questions and Problems

387

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

387

(1)

6.8 Heavy Metals

387

(7)

6.8.1 Introduction

387

(3)

6.8.2 Methodology

390

(1)

6.8.3 Experimental Procedure

390

(1)

Questions and Problems

390

(1)

Suggestions for Projects

391

(1)

References

392

(1)

Further Reading

392

(2)

Appendix A Safety

394

(3)

Appendix B Laboratory Practice

397

(34)

Appendix C Environmental Standards

431

(14)

Appendix D Recommended Groundwater and Leachate Monitoring for Landfill Sites

445

(2)

Appendix E Statistical Tables

447

(2)

Appendix F Journals with Articles of Relevance to Environmental Analysis and Environmental Chemistry

449

(3)

Appendix G Some Useful Websites

452

(3)

Subject Index

455

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Practical Environmental Analysis

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials