Principles and Applications of Geochemistry

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ISBN: 9780023364501 | 0023364505
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 12/24/1997

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Designed to show readers how to use chemical principles in solving geological problems, this book emphasizes a quantitative approach to problem solving and demonstrates how chemical principles control geologic processes in atomic and large-scale environments. The book starts with basic principles and emphasizes quantitative methods of problem-solving. It uses the principles of isotope geology to enhance the understanding of appropriate geochemical subject areas. The book also examines the geochemical processes that affect the chemical composition of surface water and that determine its quality for human consumption. For anyone interested in Geochemistry or Geology.

Preface

xiii

Part I PLANET EARTH IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM

(58)

1 What Is Geochemistry?

(6)

1.1 Early History

(1)

1.2 Geochemistry in the U.S.S.R.

(1)

1.3 V.M. Goldschmidt

(1)

1.4 Modern Geochemistry

(2)

References

(1)

2 In the Beginning

(14)

2.1 The Big Bang

(3)

2.2 Stellar Evolution

(2)

2.3 Nucleosynthesis

(7)

2.4 Summary

(1)

Problems

(1)

References

(2)

3 The Solar System

(21)

3.1 Origin of the Solar System

(3)

3.2 Origin of the Earthlike Planets

(1)

3.3 Satellites of the Outer Planets

(3)

3.4 Pictures of Our Solar System

(13)

3.5 Summary

(1)

References

(1)

4 Chemical Differentiation of the Earth

(17)

4.1 Internal Structure of the Earth

(3)

4.2 The Continental Crust: Major Elements

(3)

4.3 Differentiation of Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks

(3)

4.4 Differentiation of the Hydrosphere

(4)

4.5 Summary

(1)

Problems

(1)

References

(3)

Part II PRINCIPLES OF INORGANIC GEOCHEMISTRY

(50)

5 The Electronic Structure of Atoms

(14)

5.1 The Atom of Thomson and Rutherford

(1)

5.2 Bohr's Theory of the Hydrogen Atom

(2)

5.3 Emission of X-rays

(1)

5.4 Schrodinger's Model of the Atom

(3)

5.5 The Aufbau Principle

(2)

5.6 Summary

(3)

Problems

(1)

References

(2)

6 The Periodic Table and Atomic Weights

(9)

6.1 Mendeleev's Periodic Table

(1)

6.2 The Modern Periodic Table

(3)

6.3 Basic Principles of Atomic Physics

(1)

6.4 Atomic Weights

(3)

6.5 Summary

(1)

Problems

(1)

References

(1)

7 Chemical Bonds, Ionic Radii, and Crystals

(16)

7.1 Electron Donors Versus Acceptors

(1)

7.2 Measures of Metallic Character

(3)

7.3 Bonding in Molecules

(2)

7.4 Ionic Crystals

(2)

7.5 Ionic Radii

(6)

7.6 Summary

(1)

Problems

(1)

References

(1)

8 Ionic Substitution in Crystals

(11)

8.1 Goldschmidt's Rules of Substitution

(1)

8.2 Camouflage, Capture, and Admission

100

(2)

8.3 Coupled Substitution: Key to the Feldspars

102

(1)

8.4 Distribution Coefficients and Geothermometers

103

(2)

8.5 Geochemical Classification of the Elements

105

(1)

8.6 Summary

106

(2)

Problems

108

(1)

References

108

(2)

Part III AQUEOUS GEOCHEMISTRY AND THE STABILITY OF MINERALS

110

(166)

9 Acids and Bases

110

(20)

9.1 Chemical Reactions and Equilibria

110

(2)

9.2 The Law of Mass Action

112

(2)

9.3 Dissociation of Weak Acids and Bases

114

(7)

9.4 Solubility of Sparingly Soluble Bases

121

(2)

9.5 pH Control of Dissociation Equilibria

123

(1)

9.6 Solubility of Amorphous Silica

124

(3)

9.7 Summary

127

(1)

Problems

128

(1)

References

128

(2)

10 Salts and Their Ions

130

(25)

10.1 Solubility of Salts

130

(7)

10.2 Hydrolysis

137

(2)

10.3 Activities and Concentrations

139

(3)

10.4 Solubility of Calcium Carbonate

142

(6)

10.5 Chemical Weathering

148

(1)

10.6 Transformation of Potassium Feldspar to Kaolinite

149

(3)

10.7 Summary

152

(1)

Problems

153

(1)

References

153

(2)

11 Thermodynamics

155

(17)

11.1 Definitions

155

(2)

11.2 The First Law

157

(1)

11.3 Enthalpy

157

(2)

11.4 Heats of Reaction

159

(1)

11.5 Heat Capacity

160

(1)

11.6 The Second Law

161

(2)

11.7 Gibbs Free Energy

163

(2)

11.8 Derivation of the Law of Mass Action

165

(1)

11.9 Fugacity and Activity

166

(2)

11.10 The van't Hoff Equation

168

(1)

11.11 Solubility of Amorphous Silica Between 0 and 100(Degree)C

168

(1)

11.12 Summary

169

(1)

Problems

170

(1)

References

171

(1)

12 Mineral Stability Diagrams

172

(28)

12.1 Chemical Weathering of Feldspars

172

(10)

12.2 Formation of Zeolites

182

(4)

12.3 Magnesium Silicates

186

(4)

12.4 Solubility Diagrams

190

(4)

12.5 Fugacity Diagrams

194

(4)

12.6 Summary

198

(1)

Problems

199

(1)

References

199

(1)

13 Clay Minerals

200

(26)

13.1 Crystal Structure

200

(2)

13.2 Classification and Chemical Composition

202

(6)

13.3 Gibbs Free Energies of Formation

208

(3)

13.4 Stability Diagrams

211

(6)

13.5 Colloidal Suspensions and Ion Exchange

217

(4)

13.6 Dating of Clay Minerals

221

(1)

13.7 Summary

222

(1)

Problems

223

(1)

References

224

(2)

14 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

226

(27)

14.1 Balancing Equations of Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

226

(3)

14.2 The Electromotive Series

229

(5)

14.3 The Emf of Electrochemical Cells

234

(1)

14.4 Stability Limits of Water in Terms of Eh and pH

235

(3)

14.5 Stability of Iron Compounds

238

(11)

14.6 Summary

249

(2)

Problems

251

(1)

References

252

(1)

15 Rates of Geochemical Processes

253

(23)

15.1 Rates of Chemical Reactions

253

(4)

15.2 Transport of Matter: Advection

257

(2)

15.3 Transport of Matter: Diffusion

259

(4)

15.4 Growth of Concretions During Diagenesis

263

(5)

15.5 Growth of Monomineralic Layers

268

(3)

15.6 Summary

271

(1)

Problems

271

(2)

References

273

(3)

Part IV ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY AND MIXING

276

(66)

16 Isotopic Geochronometers

276

(25)

16.1 Decay Modes

276

(5)

16.2 Law of Radioactivity

281

(3)

16.3 Methods of Dating

284

(8)

16.4 Cosmogenic Radionuclides

292

(5)

16.5 Summary

297

(1)

Problems

297

(2)

References

299

(2)

17 Isotope Fractionation

301

(27)

17.1 Principles of Isotope Fractionation

301

(3)

17.2 Mathematical Relations

304

(2)

17.3 Isotope Fractionation in the Hydrosphere

306

(2)

17.4 Oxygen Isotope Composition of Calcite

308

(3)

17.5 Oxygen and Hydrogen in Clay Minerals

311

(2)

17.6 Groundwater and Geothermal Brines

313

(2)

17.7 Isotope Fractionation of Carbon

315

(2)

17.8 Isotope Compositions of Strontium in Carbonate Rocks

317

(2)

17.9 Isotope Fractionation of Sulfur

319

(4)

17.10 Summary

323

(2)

Problems

325

(1)

References

325

(3)

18 Mixing and Dilution

328

(14)

18.1 Binary Mixtures

328

(2)

18.2 Dilution

330

(1)

18.3 Evaporative Concentration

331

(1)

18.4 Ternary Mixtures

332

(3)

18.5 Isotopic Mixtures of One Element

335

(2)

18.6 Isotopic Mixtures of Two Elements

337

(1)

18.7 Summary

338

(1)

Problems

339

(1)

References

340

(2)

Part V APPLICATIONS OF GEOCHEMISTRY TO THE SOLUTION OF GLOBAL PROBLEMS

342

(164)

19 Consequences of Chemical Weathering

342

(26)

19.1 Changes in Chemical Composition of Rocks

343

(2)

19.2 Normative Mineral Composition of Weathering Products

345

(2)

19.3 Susceptibility of Minerals to Weathering

347

(4)

19.4 Formation of Placer Deposits

351

(2)

19.5 Provenance Determination by Isotopic Dating

353

(1)

19.6 Formation of Soils

354

(4)

19.7 Geomicrobiology

358

(3)

19.8 Food Production and Population Growth

361

(2)

19.9 Summary

363

(1)

Problems

364

(1)

References

365

(3)

20 Chemical Composition of Surface Water

368

(32)

20.1 Chemical Analysis of Water in Streams

368

(2)

20.2 Chemical Composition of Streams

370

(5)

20.3 Chemical Composition of Meteoric Precipitation

375

(1)

20.4 Normative Minerals from Water Compositions

376

(7)

20.5 Evaporative Concentration

383

(9)

20.6 Water Quality

392

(3)

20.7 Summary

395

(1)

Problems

396

(1)

References

397

(3)

21 Chemical Weathering of Mineral Deposits

400

(25)

21.1 Metallic Mineral Deposits

400

(1)

21.2 Oxidation of Iron Sulfides and the Role of Bacteria

401

(2)

21.3 Eh-pH Diagram for Copper Minerals

403

(4)

21.4 Supergene Enrichment of Fe-Cu Sulfide Deposits

407

(1)

21.5 Replacement of Pyrite by Chalcocite

408

(3)

21.6 Oxidation of Ore Minerals of Other Metals

411

(2)

21.7 Geochemical Exploration

413

(4)

21.8 Production and Consumption of Mineral Resources

417

(4)

21.9 Summary

421

(1)

Problems

422

(1)

References

423

(2)

22 Geochemical Cycles

425

(24)

22.1 The Principle of Mass Balance

426

(2)

22.2 Mass Balance for Major Elements in the Ocean

428

(3)

22.3 Mass Balance for Trace Elements in the Ocean

431

(2)

22.4 The Cycles of C-H-O-N

433

(10)

22.5 The Sulfur Cycle

443

(3)

22.6 Summary

446

(1)

Problems

447

(1)

References

447

(2)

23 Chemistry of the Atmosphere

449

(12)

23.1 Structure and Composition

450

(1)

23.2 Ultraviolet Radiation

451

(1)

23.3 Ozone in the Stratosphere

452

(1)

23.4 Ozone Hole over Antarctica

453

(2)

23.5 Infrared Radiation and the Greenhouse Effect

455

(2)

23.6 Prediction of the Future Global Climate

457

(1)

23.7 Summary

458

(1)

Problems

459

(1)

References

459

(2)

24 Environmental Geochemistry: Disposal of Radioactive Waste

461

(24)

24.1 The Big Picture

461

(1)

24.2 High-Level Nuclear Waste Disposal

462

(3)

24.3 Geological Disposal of Radioactive Waste

465

(3)

24.4 Geochemistry of Plutonium

468

(5)

24.5 Eh-pH Diagrams of Neptunium and Plutonium

473

(3)

24.6 Analog Studies: The Natural Reactors at Oklo, Gabon

476

(2)

24.7 Reactor Accidents: Chernobyl, Ukraine

478

(3)

24.8 Summary

481

(1)

Problems

482

(1)

References

483

(2)

25 Effect of Environmental Lead on Human Health

485

(21)

25.1 Isotope Composition of Environmental Lead

485

(2)

25.2 Lead in the Environment

487

(5)

25.3 Lead in Plants

492

(3)

25.4 Lead Poisoning of Cows and Horses

495

(2)

25.5 Human Bones and Tissues

497

(2)

25.6 Lead in the Bones of Ancient Peoples

499

(3)

25.7 Summary

502

(1)

Problems

503

(1)

References

504

(2)

Appendix A Compilations of Geochemical Data

506

(13)

Appendix B Standard Gibbs Free Energies (G^XXX(f)) and Standard Enthalpies of Formation (H^XXX(f))

519

(56)

Author Index

575

(14)

Subject Index

589

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Principles and Applications of Geochemistry

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Table of Contents

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