Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 2

This volume presents the long-anticipated results of several decades of inquiry into the social origins and social motivation of linguistic change.

The author is Professor of Linguistics at the University of Pennsylvania. He is the co-editor of Language Variation and Change and is author of Sociolinguistic Patterns (1972), Language in the Inner City (1972), and Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors (Blackwell, 1994).

Foreword

xi

Notational Conventions

xvii

Part A The Speech Community

1

(146)

The Darwinian Paradox

3

(32)

The social effects of language change

4

(2)

The parallels between biological and linguistic evolution

6

(9)

Earlier proposals for the causes of sound change

15

(10)

Different kinds of sound change

25

(3)

The narrow interface between language and society

28

(1)

The social location of the innovators

29

(4)

Individual, group, community

33

(2)

The Study of Linguistic Change and Variation in Philadelphia

35

(39)

Sampling the community

37

(4)

The city of Philadelphia

41

(7)

The exploratory phase

48

(1)

The Neighborhood Study

49

(20)

The telephone survey

69

(5)

Stable Sociolinguistic Variables

74

(47)

The necessary background for the study of change in progress

74

(4)

Variables to be examined in this chapter

78

(7)

The stability of stable variables

85

(8)

The sociolinguistic sample of Philadelphia

93

(2)

Cross-tabulation of (dh) by class and style

95

(6)

Cross-tabulation by age

101

(5)

Cross-tabulations by age and social class

106

(4)

Second regression analysis

110

(3)

An exploration of social class indicators

113

(6)

Conclusion

119

(2)

The Philadelphia Vowel System

121

(26)

The Philadelphia dialect area

121

(3)

A general framework for the description of the Philadelphia vowel system

124

(4)

Earlier records of the Philadelphia vowel system

128

(5)

The Philadelphia vowel system in the 1970s

133

(9)

Development of sound changes in apparent time

142

(5)

Part B Social Class, Gender, Neighborhood, and Ethnicity

147

(176)

Location of the Leaders in the Socioeconomic Hierarchy

149

(44)

The data set

149

(1)

Accuracy and sources of error

150

(14)

First regression: age correlations

164

(2)

First tabulation of social class

166

(2)

Second regression: age and social class

168

(1)

Third regression: re-analyzing the age dimension

169

(3)

The centralization of (ay) before voiceless consonants

172

(1)

The telephone survey

173

(7)

Components of the socioeconomic index

180

(6)

An overview

186

(2)

Further observations of class distributions

188

(2)

The curvilinear pattern and the causes of change

190

(1)

Are sound changes part of an adaptive process?

190

(3)

Subjective Dimensions of Change in Progress

193

(31)

Field methods for the study of subjective reactions to language change

193

(4)

The Philadelphia Self-Report Test

197

(9)

The Philadelphia Subjective Reaction Test

206

(18)

Neighborhood and Ethnicity

224

(37)

The relation of local differentiation to linguistic change

226

(3)

The Belfast neighborhoods

229

(3)

The relation of neighborhood to social class in Philadelphia

232

(1)

Results of the fourth regression analysis: adding neighborhoods

233

(10)

An overview of neighborhood effects

243

(2)

Ethnicity

245

(5)

(r) in Philadelphia

250

(6)

Other unexplained adstratum effects

256

(1)

Ethnic effects on Philadelphia vowel changes

257

(2)

The role of neighborhood and ethnicity in linguistic change

259

(2)

The Gender Paradox

261

(33)

Gender differentiation of stable sociolinguistic variables in Philadelphia

263

(3)

The general linguistic conformity of women

266

(13)

Gender differentiation of changes from below

279

(15)

The Intersection of Gender, Age, and Social Class

294

(29)

The case of (ayO)

300

(3)

Developments over time by gender

303

(3)

A gender-asymmetrical model of linguistic change

306

(3)

Nearly completed and middle-range changes in Philadelphia

309

(5)

The punctuating events

314

(1)

The male-dominated variable: (ayO)

315

(4)

Conclusion

319

(4)

Part C The Leaders of Linguistic Change

323

(90)

Social Networks

325

(41)

The sociolinguistic use of social networks

325

(4)

Social networks in Belfast

329

(5)

Social networks in Philadelphia

334

(22)

The two-step flow of influence

356

(4)

A general view of fashion and fashion leaders

360

(3)

Who leads the leaders?

363

(3)

Resolving the Gender Paradox

366

(19)

The conformity paradox

366

(1)

The strategy of this chapter: combining stable variables with changes in progress

367

(4)

Correlations between stable sociolinguistic variables and changes in progress

371

(2)

The relation of (dha) to linguistic changes for women of different social classes

373

(6)

Combined male and female analysis

379

(3)

Incremental and saccadic leaders

382

(3)

Portraits of the Leaders

385

(28)

Celeste S.

386

(9)

Teresa M.

395

(1)

The Corcorans

396

(6)

Rick Corcoran

402

(3)

Individuals as regression variables

405

(3)

The leaders of palatalization in Cairo Arabic

408

(1)

The leaders of linguistic change

409

(4)

Part D Transmission, Incrementation, and Continuation

413

(106)

Transmission

415

(31)

The transmission problem

415

(2)

The transmission of stable sociolinguistic variables

417

(4)

The transmission of change

421

(6)

Directional language change among Philadelphia children

427

(5)

Transmission among adolescents in Detroit

432

(14)

Incrementation

446

(20)

Stabilization

446

(1)

A model of linear sound change

447

(19)

Continuation

466

(32)

Continued change in the Philadelphia dialect

466

(9)

The incrementation of sound change in North America

475

(23)

Conclusion

498

(21)

The linguistic basis for continuation

498

(2)

The social location of the leaders of change

500

(2)

Transmission and incrementation

502

(1)

The social basis of linguistic change

503

(8)

Global polarities of socially motivated projection

511

(8)

Afterword

519

(2)

References

521

(18)

Index

539

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Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 2 Social Factors

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials