PVC: Production, Properties and Uses

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ISBN: 9780901716590 | 0901716596
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 12/1/1997

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This survey of the whole field of PVC technology pays particular regard to industrial practice and to the fundamental principles which underlay it. Although suitable for students, this book goes well beyond their scope and is intended to be of value to anyone concerned with production, development and research involving PVC.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

(2)

PREFACE

xvii

1 Introduction

(6)

1.1 Terminology

(1)

1.2 Discovery

(1)

1.3 Development

(5)

1.3.1 Copolymers and plasticisers

(1)

1.3.2 Production

(1)

1.3.3 Degradation and stabilisation

(1)

1.3.4 Polymerisation

(1)

1.3.5 Growth

(2)

2 Production and properties of vinyl chloride and related monomers

(6)

2.1 Vinyl chloride

(2)

2.1.1 Laboratory preparation

(1)

2.1.2 Manufacture

(1)

2.1.3 Properties

(1)

2.2 Vinyl acetate

(1)

2.2.1 Laboratory preparation

(1)

2.2.2 Manufacture

(1)

2.2.3 Properties

(1)

2.3 Other vinyl esters

(1)

2.4 Vinylidene chloride

(1)

2.5 Other monomers

(2)

3 Production of vinyl chloride polymers and copolymers

(28)

3.1 Introduction

(1)

3.2 Kinetics and mechanisms of polymerisation

(12)

3.2.1 Rate of polymerisation

(1)

3.2.2 Temperature of polymerisation

(1)

3.2.3 Copolymerisation

(2)

3.2.4 Heat of polymerisation

(1)

3.2.5 Chain-transfer agents

(1)

3.2.6 Initiators

(4)

3.3 Polymerisation procedures

(13)

3.3.1 Mass or bulk polymerisation

(1)

3.3.2 Emulsion polymerisation

(3)

3.3.3 Suspension polymerisation

(4)

3.3.4 Polymerisation plant

(4)

3.4 Conclusion

(3)

4 Properties of vinyl chloride polymers and copolymers

(22)

4.1 Introduction

(1)

4.2 Structure of vinyl chloride polymers and copolymers

(2)

4.3 Molecular weight and molecular weight distribution

(2)

4.4 Particle size and shape

(4)

4.5 Purity

(1)

4.6 Copolymers

(1)

4.7 Physical properties

(6)

4.7.1 Density

(1)

4.7.2 Thermal properties

(1)

4.7.3 Optical properties

(1)

4.7.4 Electrical properties

(1)

4.7.5 Mechanical properties

(1)

4.7.6 Physical response to other media

(1)

4.8 Chemical properties

(1)

4.9 Crystalline polymers

(1)

4.10 Selecting polymers

(5)

5 Degradation and stabilisation

(24)

5.1 Introduction

(2)

5.1.1 Thermal decomposition

(1)

5.1.2 Techniques for studies of thermal decomposition

(1)

5.2 Kinetics of thermal decomposition

(1)

5.3 Mechanisms of thermal degradation

(6)

5.3.1 Unimolecular expulsion theory

(1)

5.3.2 Radical-chain theories

(1)

5.3.3 Ionic theories of decomposition

(1)

5.3.4 Effects of structural irregularities

(3)

5.3.5 Effects of impurities

(1)

5.3.6 Effects of air and oxygen

(1)

5.3.7 Effects of photoradiation

(1)

5.3.8 Mechanical effects

(1)

5.4 Stabilisation

(15)

5.4.1 General considerations

(1)

5.4.2 Inorganic metal salts

(2)

5.4.3 Metal soaps

(2)

5.4.4 Metal complexes

(1)

5.4.5 Organotin compounds

(1)

5.4.6 Epoxy compounds

(1)

5.4.7 Organic phosphites, chelators and antioxidants

(1)

5.4.8 Miscellaneous compounds

(1)

5.4.9 Selection of stabilisers

(1)

5.4.10 Mechanisms off stabilisation

(1)

5.4.11 Stabilisation against photodegradation

(5)

6 Plasticisation

(32)

6.1 Introduction

(1)

6.2 General considerations

(1)

6.3 Theory of plasticisation

(31)

6.3.1 General mechanism

(1)

6.3.2 Theories of plasticiser action

(4)

6.3.3 The process of plasticisation

(2)

6.3.4 Properties of plasticised PVC

(15)

6.3.5 Individual plasticisers

109

(6)

6.3.6 Selection of plasticisers

115

(4)

7 Other aspects of formulation

119

(22)

7.1 Introduction

119

(1)

7.2 Lubricants

119

(2)

7.2.1 External lubricants

120

(1)

7.2.2 Internal lubricants

120

(1)

7.3 Fillers

121

(9)

7.3.1 Unplasticised PVC

121

(1)

7.3.2 Fillers in plasticised PVC

121

(9)

7.4 Impact modifiers

130

(1)

7.5 Processing aids

131

(1)

7.6 Antistatic agents

132

(1)

7.7 Colorants

132

(6)

7.7.1 Dispersion of colorants

133

(1)

7.7.2 Stability during processing

134

(1)

7.7.3 Migration problems

134

(1)

7.7.4 Colour stability

135

(1)

7.7.5 Electrical properties

136

(1)

7.7.6 Selection of colorants

136

(2)

7.8 Chemical blowing agents

138

(1)

7.9 Bacteriostats and fungicides

139

(2)

8 Principles of formulation

141

(16)

8.1 Introduction

141

(1)

8.2 Plasticisation

141

(1)

8.3 Fillers

142

(1)

8.4 Stabiliser systems

142

(1)

8.5 Lubricants

143

(1)

8.6 Other additives

143

(1)

8.7 Polymer

143

(4)

8.8 Properties of PVC compositions

147

(2)

8.8.1 General

147

(2)

8.9 Typical formulations

149

(8)

8.9.1 Compounds for extrusion

150

(3)

8.9.2 Compounds for injection moulding

153

(1)

8.9.3 Compounds for blow-moulding

154

(1)

8.9.4 Compositions for calendering

154

(1)

8.9.5 Gramophone records

155

(2)

9 General consideration of processing

157

(14)

9.1 Introduction

157

(1)

9.2 Manufacturing procedures

158

(1)

9.3 General mechanisms of processing

159

(12)

9.3.1 Introduction

159

(1)

9.3.2 Gelation

160

(4)

9.3.3 Melt flow behaviour

164

(3)

9.3.4 Degradation

167

(1)

9.3.5 Thermoforming behaviour

168

(3)

10 Mixing and compounding

171

(20)

10.1 Introduction

171

(1)

10.2 Theoretical considerations

171

(3)

10.2.1 Scale of scrutiny

171

(1)

10.2.2 Degree of goodness of mixing

172

(1)

10.2.3 Rate of mixing

173

(1)

10.2.4 Practical complications

173

(1)

10.3 Mixing machines

174

(5)

10.3.1 Tumble-mixers

174

(1)

10.3.2 Paddle mixers

174

(1)

10.3.3 Ribbon blenders

175

(1)

10.3.4 Z-blade or sigma-blade mixers or kneaders

175

(1)

10.3.5 `Air' mixers

176

(1)

10.3.6 Intensive non-fluxing mixers

176

(1)

10.3.7 Production of dry blends

177

(1)

10.3.8 Ball mills

178

(1)

10.3.9 Colloid, disc and pin mills

178

(1)

10.3.10 Mullers

178

(1)

10.3.11 Roll mills

179

(1)

10.4 Compounding machines

179

(12)

10.4.1 Roll mills

179

(3)

10.4.2 Internal mixers

182

(3)

10.4.3 Other batch compounding machines

185

(1)

10.4.4 Continuous compounding

186

(5)

11 Extrusion of PVC

191

(20)

11.1 Introduction

191

(1)

11.2 General considerations

191

(20)

11.2.1 Feedstock

191

(1)

11.2.2 Machine design

192

(3)

11.2.3 Operation

195

(2)

11.2.4 Dry blend extrusion

197

(2)

11.2.5 Extrusion faults

199

(2)

11.3 Specific extrusions

201

(10)

11.3.1 Rod and solid profiles

201

(1)

11.3.2 Sheet

201

(1)

11.3.3 Pipe and tubing

202

(1)

11.3.4 Tubular extruded blown film

203

(1)

11.3.5 Wire covering and related extrusion operations

204

(2)

11.3.6 Rigid foam extrusion

206

(1)

11.3.7 Extrusion blow moulding of PVC

207

(4)

12 Calendering PVC

211

(16)

12.1 Introduction

211

(1)

12.2 General principles

211

(1)

12.3 Production of unsupported film and sheeting

212

(5)

12.3.1 Introduction

212

(1)

12.3.2 Calender construction and operation

213

(3)

12.3.3 Thick sheeting

216

(1)

12.4 Production of supported sheeting or coated fabrics

217

(1)

12.5 Post-calender machinery

218

(1)

12.6 The `Luvitherm' process

218

(1)

12.7 Melt-roll machines

219

(1)

12.8 Calendered vinyl flooring

220

(2)

12.8.1 Introduction

220

(1)

12.8.2 Flexible flooring

220

(1)

12.8.3 `Rigid' or `semi-rigid' tiles

221

(1)

12.9 Calendering faults

222

(5)

12.9.1 Introduction

222

(1)

12.9.2 Variations in thickness

222

(1)

12.9.3 Inadequate mechanical properties

223

(1)

12.9.4 `Plate-out'

223

(1)

12.9.5 Surface defects

223

(2)

12.9.6 `Pin-holes'

225

(1)

12.9.7 Creases and wrinkles

225

(2)

13 Moulding PVC

227

(12)

13.1 Introduction

227

(1)

13.2 Compression moulding

227

(5)

13.2.1 Press-polishing and laminating

227

(1)

13.2.2 Production of gramophone records

228

(3)

13.2.3 Moulded cellular PVC

231

(1)

13.3 Injection moulding

232

(7)

13.3.1 Introduction

232

(1)

13.3.2 Injection moulding plasticised PVC

232

(1)

13.3.3 Injection moulding unplasticised PVC

233

(1)

13.3.4 Injection moulding faults

234

(5)

14 PVC pastes

239

(28)

14.1 Introduction

239

(1)

14.2 Formulation and properties of PVC pastes

239

(13)

14.2.1 Properties of gelled pastes

239

(1)

14.2.2 Rheological properties of pastes

240

(10)

14.2.3 Gelation of PVC pastes

250

(2)

14.3 Preparation and storage of PVC pastes

252

(1)

14.3.1 Mixing

252

(1)

14.3.2 Deaeration of pastes

252

(1)

14.3.3 Storage

252

(1)

14.4 Processing of PVC pastes

253

(14)

14.4.1 General considerations

253

(1)

14.4.2 Casting

253

(1)

14.4.3 Injection moulding

253

(1)

14.4.4 Slush moulding (`hollow casting' or `flow moulding')

254

(1)

14.4.5 Rotational casting

254

(1)

14.4.6 Dipping processes

256

(1)

14.4.7 Spreading

257

(16)

14.4.8 Production of cellular products from PVC pastes

263

(4)

15 Miscellaneous processes

267

(12)

15.1 Sintering

267

(3)

15.1.1 General considerations

267

(1)

15.1.2 Production of porous sheeting

267

(1)

15.1.3 Coating metal plate and strip

268

(1)

15.1.4 Fluidised bed coating

269

(1)

15.1.5 Power spraying

270

(1)

15.2 Solutions

270

(1)

15.3 Latices

271

(1)

15.4 Thermoforming processes

272

(7)

15.4.1 General considerations

272

(1)

15.4.2 Forming PVC sheets

273

(1)

15.4.3 Forming tubing and pipe

274

(1)

15.4.4 Oriented film and sheeting

274

(1)

15.4.5 Welding

274

(1)

15.4.6 Cementing

275

(1)

15.4.7 Machining

276

(1)

15.4.8 Surface decoration

276

(3)

16 Properties and applications of PVC

279

(28)

16.1 Introduction

279

(1)

16.1.1 General

279

(1)

16.1.2 Costs

279

(1)

16.2 Properties

280

(11)

16.2.1 General

280

(1)

16.2.2 Plasticised PVC

280

(3)

16.2.3 Unplasticised PVC

283

(7)

16.2.4 Response to radiation

290

(1)

16.2.5 Response to biological agencies

290

(1)

16.3 Applications

291

(16)

16.3.1 General

291

(1)

16.3.2 Electrical and electronic applications

292

(2)

16.3.3 Communications

294

(1)

16.3.4 Building and civil engineering

295

(3)

16.3.5 Furnishings, lighting and associated fittings

298

(1)

16.3.6 Chemical engineering

299

(1)

16.3.7 Clothing

300

(1)

16.3.8 Packaging

300

(2)

16.3.9 Medical and surgical applications

302

(1)

16.3.10 Toys and sports goods

303

(1)

16.3.11 Transport

303

(1)

16.3.12 Agriculture, horticulture and miscellaneous related applications

303

(4)

17 Toxicity and environmental considerations

307

(12)

17.1 Introduction

307

(1)

17.2 Polymer production

308

(1)

17.3 Polymer in use

309

(1)

17.4 PVC products

310

(2)

17.5 Fire hazards

312

(1)

17.6 Waste disposal

313

(2)

17.7 The total environmental impact

315

(4)

18 Experimental and test procedures

319

(43)

18.1 Introduction

319

(1)

18.2 Latices

319

(1)

18.2.1 General

319

(1)

18.2.2 Latex stability

319

(1)

18.2.3 Solids content

320

(1)

18.3 Polymers (or resins)

320

(15)

18.3.1 Molecular weight characteristics

320

(1)

18.3.2 Chlorine content

321

(1)

18.3.3 Comonomer content

321

(1)

18.3.4 Volatiles

321

(3)

18.3.5 Purity

324

(1)

18.3.6 Particle characteristics

325

(2)

18.3.7 Response to plasticisers

327

(1)

18.3.8 Gelation and dispersion

328

(3)

18.3.9 Melt flow

331

(1)

18.3.10 Solubility

331

(1)

18.3.11 Clarity

332

(1)

18.3.12 Heat stability

332

(3)

18.3.13 Electrical properties

335

(1)

18.4 Stabilisers

335

(1)

18.5 Plasticisers

335

(4)

18.5.1 General

335

(1)

18.5.2 Efficiency

336

(1)

18.5.3 Viscosity

336

(1)

18.5.4 Properties at extremes of temperature

336

(1)

18.5.5 Colour and clarity

337

(1)

18.5.6 Compatibility

337

(1)

18.5.7 Extraction

338

(1)

18.5.8 Effects on electrical properties

338

(1)

18.5.9 Effects on stability

339

(1)

18.6 Lubricants

339

(1)

18.6.1 General

339

(1)

18.6.2 `Plate-out'

339

(1)

18.7 Fillers

339

(1)

18.7.1 General

339

(1)

18.7.2 Particle size

340

(1)

18.7.3 Surface area and oil absorption

340

(1)

18.7.4 Effects on gloss

340

(1)

18.8 Impact modifiers

340

(1)

18.9 Processing aids

341

(1)

18.10 Colorants

341

(1)

18.10.1 Colour

341

(1)

18.10.2 Dispersion

341

(1)

18.10.3 Stability

341

(1)

18.10.4 Migration

341

(1)

18.10.5 Effects on electrical properties

342

(1)

18.11 Dry blends

342

(2)

18.11.1 General

342

(1)

18.11.2 Particle size

343

(1)

18.11.3 Bulk and packing densities

343

(1)

18.11.4 Powder flow

343

(1)

18.11.5 Processing behaviour

343

(1)

18.12 Pastes

344

(1)

18.12.1 General

344

(1)

18.12.2 Viscosity

344

(1)

18.12.3 Gelation

344

(1)

18.13 Compounds

344

(1)

18.13.1 General

344

(1)

18.13.2 Melt flow behaviour

344

(1)

18.13.3 Processing rate

345

(1)

18.13.4 Dispersion

345

(1)

18.13.5 Stability

345

(1)

18.14 Product properties

345

(9)

18.14.1 General

345

(1)

18.14.2 Relative density

346

(1)

18.14.3 Softness/hardness

346

(1)

18.14.4 Indentation

347

(1)

18.14.5 Tensile properties

347

(1)

18.14.6 `Drape' and `handle'

347

(1)

18.14.7 Brittleness/toughness

348

(1)

18.14.8 Tear strength

348

(1)

18.14.9 Low temperature properties

348

(1)

18.14.10 Properties at elevated temperatures

349

(1)

18.14.11 Flammability

350

(1)

18.14.12 Electrical properties

351

(1)

18.14.13 Other general tests

351

(1)

18.14.14 Some specific tests for film and sheeting

352

(1)

18.14.15 Specific tests for specific products

353

(1)

18.15 Analysis of PVC compounds

354

(1)

18.16 Standard specifications

354

(8)

18.16.1 General

354

(1)

18.16.2 British Standard specifications

355

(2)

18.16.3 International organisation for standardisation specifications

357

(5)

APPENDIX

362

(1)

AUTHOR INDEX

363

(2)

SUBJECT INDEX

365

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PVC: Production, Properties and Uses

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