Quantum Blockchain An Emerging Cryptographic Paradigm
, by Dhanaraj, Rajesh Kumar; Rajasekar, Vani; Islam, SK Hafizul; Balusamy, Balamurugan; Hsu, Ching-Hsien
- ISBN: 9781119836223 | 1119836220
- Cover: Hardcover
- Copyright: 8/2/2022
QUANTUM BLOCKCHAIN
While addressing the security challenges and threats in blockchain, this book is also an introduction to quantum cryptography for engineering researchers and students in the realm of information security.
Quantum cryptography is the science of exploiting quantum mechanical properties to perform cryptographic tasks. By utilizing unique quantum features of nature, quantum cryptography methods offer everlasting security.
The applicability of quantum cryptography is explored in this book. It describes the state-of-the-art of quantum blockchain techniques and sketches how they can be implemented in standard communication infrastructure. Highlighting a wide range of topics such as quantum cryptography, quantum blockchain, post-quantum blockchain, and quantum blockchain in Industry 4.0, this book also provides the future research directions of quantum blockchain in terms of quantum resilience, data management, privacy issues, sustainability, scalability, and quantum blockchain interoperability. Above all, it explains the mathematical ideas that underpin the methods of post-quantum cryptography security.
Readers will find in this book a comprehensiveness of the subject including:
- The key principles of quantum computation that solve the factoring issue.
- A discussion of a variety of potential post-quantum public-key encryption and digital signature techniques.
- Explanations of quantum blockchain in cybersecurity, healthcare, and Industry 4.0.
Audience
The book is for security analysts, data scientists, vulnerability analysts, professionals, academicians, researchers, industrialists, and students working in the fields of (quantum) blockchain, cybersecurity, cryptography, and artificial intelligence with regard to smart cities and Internet of Things.
Dr Rajesh Kumar Dhanaraj is a Professor in the School of Computing Science and Engineering at Galgotias University, Greater Noida, India.
Vani Rajasekar is an assistant professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at Kongu Engineering College, India and is pursuing her PhD in information and communication engineering).
Dr. SK Hafizul Islam is currently an assistant professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Information Technology Kalyani, West Bengal, India.
Dr. Balamurugan Balusamy is a professor in the School of Computing Science and Engineering, Galgotias University, Greater Noida, India.
Dr. Ching-Hsien Hsu is Chair Professor of the College of Information and Electrical Engineering; Director of Big Data Research Center, Asia University, Taiwan.
Preface xix
1 Introduction to Classical Cryptography 1
Vani Rajasekar, Premalatha J., Rajesh Kumar Dhanaraj and Oana Geman
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Substitution Ciphers 2
1.2.1 Caesar Cipher 3
1.2.2 Polyalphabetic Cipher 4
1.2.2.1 Working of Polyalphabetic Cipher 4
1.2.2.2 Cracking of Cipher Text 5
1.2.3 Hill Cipher 5
1.2.4 Playfair Cipher 7
1.2.4.1 Rules for Encrypting the Playfair Cipher 7
1.3 Transposition Cipher 8
1.3.1 Columnar Transposition 8
1.3.2 Rail Fence Transposition 9
1.3.3 Route Cipher 9
1.3.4 Double Transposition 10
1.4 Symmetric Encryption Technique 10
1.4.1 Key Management 11
1.4.2 Key Generation 12
1.4.3 Key Exchange 12
1.4.4 Data Encryption Standard 12
1.4.4.1 Structure of DES 13
1.4.4.2 Fiestel Function 14
1.4.5 Advanced Encryption Standard 15
1.4.5.1 Operation in AES 15
1.4.6 Applications of Symmetric Cipher 17
1.4.7 Drawback of Symmetric Encryption 17
1.4.7.1 Key Exhaustion 17
1.4.7.2 Key Management at Large Scale 17
1.4.7.3 Attribution Data 17
1.5 Asymmetric Encryption Technique 17
1.5.1 Rivest-Shamir-Adleman Encryption Algorithm 18
1.5.2 Elliptic Curve Cryptography 19
1.5.2.1 Elliptic Curve 19
1.5.2.2 Difference Between ECC and RSA 20
1.5.2.3 Advantages and Security of ECC 20
1.5.3 Hyperelliptic Curve Cryptography 21
1.6 Digital Signatures 22
1.6.1 Working of Digital Signature 22
1.6.2 Creation of Digital Signature 23
1.6.3 Message Authentication Code 24
1.6.3.1 Limitation on MAC 25
1.6.3.2 One Time MAC 25
1.6.4 Secure Hash Algorithm 26
1.6.4.1 Characteristics of SHA 26
1.6.4.2 Applications of SHA 27
1.6.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Signature 27
1.6.5.1 Advantages of Digital Signature 27
1.6.5.2 Disadvantages of Digital Signature 27
1.6.6 Conclusion 28
References 28
2 Quantum Cryptographic Techniques 31
Malathy S., Santhiya M. and Rajesh Kumar Dhanaraj
2.1 Post-Quantum Cryptography 32
2.2 Strength of Quantum Cryptography 32
2.3 Working Principle of Quantum Cryptography 32
2.4 Example of Quantum Cryptography 33
2.5 Fundamentals of Quantum Cryptography 34
2.5.1 Entanglement 34
2.5.1.1 Entanglement State 34
2.6 Problems With the One-Time Pad and Key Distribution 35
2.7 Quantum No-Cloning Property 36
2.8 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 37
2.9 Quantum Key Distribution 38
2.10 Cybersecurity Risks Prevailing in Current Cryptographic Techniques 39
2.11 Implementation of Quantum-Safe Cryptography 40
2.12 Practical Usage of Existing QKD Solutions 41
2.13 Attributes of Quantum Key Distribution 41
2.13.1 Key Rate 42
2.13.2 Length of the Link 43
2.13.3 Key Material Production 43
2.13.4 Robustness 43
2.13.5 Usage of the Key 43
2.14 Quantum Key Distribution Protocols 44
2.14.1 BB84 Protocol 44
2.14.2 Decoy State Protocol 45
2.14.3 T12 Protocol 45
2.14.4 SARG04 Protocol 45
2.14.5 Six-State Protocol 46
2.14.6 E91 Protocol 46
2.14.7 COW Protocol (Coherent One-Way Protocol) 46
2.14.8 HDQKD Protocol (High-Dimensional Quantum Key Distribution) 47
2.14.9 KMB09 Protocol 47
2.14.10 B92 Protocol 47
2.14.11 MSZ96 Protocol 48
2.14.12 DPS Protocol 48
2.14.13 Three-Stage Quantum Protocol 48
2.14.14 S09 Protocol 48
2.15 Applications of Quantum Cryptography 49
2.15.1 Multipoint Secure Computation 50
2.15.2 E-Commerce 51
2.15.3 Cloud Computing 51
2.16 Conclusion 52
References 52
3 Evolution of Quantum Blockchain 55
Dinesh Komarasamy and Jenita Hermina J.
3.1 Introduction of Blockchain 55
3.2 Introduction of Quantum Computing 62
3.2.1 Background and History of Quantum Computers 63
3.2.2 Scope of Quantum Computers in Blockchain 65
3.3 Restrictions of Blockchain Quantum 65
3.3.1 Post-Quantum Cryptography 65
3.3.1.1 Lattice Cryptography 66
3.3.2 Multivariate Cryptography 69
3.3.3 Hash Cryptography 70
3.3.4 Code Cryptography 71
3.4 Post-Quantum Cryptography Features 72
3.5 Quantum Cryptography 73
3.5.1 Working of QKD 73
3.5.2 Protocols of QKD 75
3.5.2.1 Prepare-and-Measure 75
3.5.2.2 Entanglement 76
3.6 Comparison Between Traditional and Quantum-Resistant Cryptosystems 76
3.7 Quantum Blockchain Applications 77
3.8 Blockchain Applications 77
3.8.1 Financial Application 77
3.8.2 Non-Financial Application 78
3.9 Limitations of Blockchain 78
3.10 Conclusion 79
References 79
4 Development of the Quantum Bitcoin (BTC) 83
Gaurav Dhuriya, Aradhna Saini and Prashant Johari
4.1 Introduction of BTC 84
4.2 Extract 87
4.3 Preservation 89
4.3.1 The Role of Cryptography in BTC 91
4.3.2 The Role of Decentralization in BTC 93
4.3.3 The Role of Immutability in BTC 94
4.3.4 The Role of Proof-of-Exertion in BTC 95
4.4 The Growth of BTC 97
4.5 Quantum Computing (History and Future) 98
4.6 Quantum Computation 99
4.7 The Proposal of Quantum Calculation 101
4.8 What Are Quantum Computers and How They Exertion? 102
4.9 Post-Quantum Cryptography 104
4.10 Difficulties Facing BTC 105
4.11 Conclusion 106
References 107
5 A Conceptual Model for Quantum Blockchain 109
Vijayalakshmi P., Abraham Dinakaran and Korhan Cengiz
5.1 Introduction 110
5.2 Distributed Ledger Technology 110
5.2.1 Features of DLT 111
5.2.2 Quantum Computing 111
5.2.2.1 Growth of Quantum Computing 112
5.2.2.2 A Comparison of Classical Computing and Quantum Computing 112
5.2.3 Blockchain and Quantum Blockchain 113
5.2.3.1 Characteristics of Blockchain 113
5.2.3.2 Quantum Blockchain 114
5.3 Hardware Composition of the Quantum Computer 115
5.4 Framework Styles of Quantum Blockchain 115
5.4.1 Computational Elements 115
5.4.1.1 Qubits 115
5.4.1.2 Quantum Gates and Quantum Computation 116
5.4.2 The Architectural Patterns 117
5.4.2.1 Layered Approach 117
5.4.2.2 Securing Mechanisms for Quantum Blockchain 119
5.5 Fundamental Integrants 122
5.5.1 Interaction of Quantum Systems 122
5.5.2 Failure of Quantum Systems 122
5.5.3 Security of Quantum Systems 123
5.5.4 Challenges and Opportunities 123
5.6 Conclusion 124
References 124
6 Challenges and Research Perspective of Post–Quantum Blockchain 127
Venu K. and Krishnakumar B.
6.1 Introduction 128
6.1.1 Cryptocurrency 128
6.1.2 Blockchain 128
6.1.2.1 Bitcoin and Cryptocurrencies 129
6.1.2.2 Insolent Bonds 129
6.1.2.3 Imminent Stage 129
6.1.3 Physiology of Blockchain 130
6.1.4 Blockchain Network 131
6.1.5 Blockchain Securities 131
6.1.5.1 Public Key Cryptography an Asymmetric Cryptosystem 131
6.1.5.2 Digital Signature’s Hashing Algorithm 132
6.1.6 Bitcoin Blockchain 132
6.1.7 Quantum Cryptography 132
6.1.8 Quantum Blockchain 135
6.1.9 Post–Quantum Cryptography 136
6.2 Post–Quantum Blockchain Cryptosystems 136
6.2.1 Post–Quantum Blockchain Cryptosystems Based on Public Keys 137
6.2.1.1 Code–Based Cryptosystem 137
6.2.1.2 Multivariant–Based Cryptosystem 142
6.2.1.3 Lattice–Based Cryptosystem 142
6.2.1.4 Super Singular Elliptic–Curve Isogeny Cryptosystem 146
6.2.1.5 Hybrid–Based Cryptosystem 146
6.2.2 Post–Quantum Blockchain Signatures 146
6.2.2.1 Code–Centred Digital Signature 146
6.2.2.2 Multivariant–Based Digital Signature 147
6.2.2.3 Lattice–Based Digital Signature 147
6.2.2.4 Super Singular Elliptic–Curve Isogeny Digital Signature 153
6.2.2.5 Hash–Based Digital Signature 154
6.3 Post–Quantum Blockchain Performance Comparison 154
6.3.1 Encryption Algorithm 154
6.3.2 Digital Signatures 162
6.4 Future Scopes of Post–Quantum Blockchain 168
6.4.1 NIST Standardization 168
6.4.2 Key and Signature Size 168
6.4.3 Faster Evolution 168
6.4.4 Post–Quantum Blockchain From Pre–Quantum 169
6.4.5 Generation of Keys 169
6.4.6 Computational Efficiency 169
6.4.7 Choosing Hardware 169
6.4.8 Overheads on Large Ciphertext 170
6.5 Conclusion 170
References 170
7 Post-Quantum Cryptosystems for Blockchain 173
K. Tamil Selvi and R. Thamilselvan
7.1 Introduction 174
7.2 Basics of Blockchain 174
7.3 Quantum and Post-Quantum Cryptography 177
7.4 Post-Quantum Cryptosystems for Blockchain 180
7.4.1 Public Key Post-Quantum Cryptosystems 180
7.4.1.1 Code-Based Cryptosystems 180
7.4.1.2 Lattice-Based Cryptosystems 184
7.4.1.3 Multivariate-Based Cryptosystem 186
7.4.1.4 Supersingular Elliptic Curve Isogency-Based Cryptosystems 187
7.4.1.5 Hybrid Cryptosystems 189
7.4.2 Post-Quantum Signing Algorithms 190
7.4.2.1 Code-Based Cryptosystems 191
7.4.2.2 Lattice-Based Cryptosystems 191
7.4.2.3 Multivariate Based Cryptosystem 193
7.4.2.4 Supersingular Elliptic Curve Isogency-Based Cryptosystem 193
7.4.2.5 Hash-Based Cryptosystem 194
7.5 Other Cryptosystems for Post-Quantum Blockchain 195
7.6 Conclusion 196
References 199
8 Post-Quantum Confidential Transaction Protocols 201
R. Manjula Devi, P. Keerthika, P. Suresh, R. Venkatesan, M. Sangeetha, C. Sagana and K. Devendran
8.1 Introduction 201
8.2 Confidential Transactions 202
8.2.1 Confidential Transaction Protocol 203
8.3 Zero-Knowledge Protocol 203
8.3.1 Properties 204
8.3.2 Types 204
8.3.2.1 Interactive Zero-Knowledge Proof 204
8.3.2.2 Non-Interactive Zero-Knowledge Proof (NIZKP) 205
8.3.3 Zero-Knowledge Proof for Graph Isomorphism 207
8.3.4 Zero-Knowledge Proof for Graph Non-Isomorphism 208
8.3.5 Zero-Knowledge Proof for NP-Complete Problems 209
8.3.5.1 Three-Coloring Problem 209
8.3.6 Zero-Knowledge Proofs for Specific Lattice Problems 210
8.3.7 Zero-Knowledge Proof for Blockchain 210
8.3.7.1 Messaging 211
8.3.7.2 Authentication 211
8.3.7.3 Storage Protection 211
8.3.7.4 Sending Private Blockchain Transactions 211
8.3.7.5 Complex Documentation 211
8.3.7.6 File System Control 212
8.3.7.7 Security for Sensitive Information 212
8.3.8 Zero-Knowledge Proof for High Level Compilers 212
8.4 Zero-Knowledge Protocols 212
8.4.1 Schnorr Protocol 212
8.4.2 Σ-Protocols 214
8.4.2.1 Three-Move Structure 216
8.5 Transformation Methods 216
8.5.1 CRS Model 216
8.5.2 Fiat-Shamir Heuristic 217
8.5.3 Unruh Transformation 217
8.6 Conclusion 217
References 218
9 A Study on Post-Quantum Blockchain: The Next Innovation for Smarter and Safer Cities 221
G.K. Kamalam and R.S. Shudapreyaa
9.1 Blockchain: The Next Big Thing in Smart City Technology 222
9.1.1 What is Blockchain, and How Does It Work? 222
9.1.1.1 The Blockchain Advantage 223
9.1.1.2 What is the Mechanism Behind Blockchain? 224
9.1.2 The Requirements for a Blockchain System 224
9.1.3 Using the Blockchain to Improve Smart City Efforts 225
9.2 Application of Blockchain Technology in Smart Cities 226
9.2.1 Big Data 226
9.2.1.1 Role of Big Data 226
9.2.1.2 Problems of Big Data 227
9.2.2 Energy Internet 227
9.2.2.1 Role of Energy Internet 227
9.2.2.2 Problems of Energy Internet 227
9.2.3 Internet of Things 228
9.2.3.1 Role of IoT 228
9.2.3.2 Problems of IoT 228
9.3 Using Blockchain to Secure Smart Cities 228
9.3.1 Blockchain Technology 228
9.3.2 Framework for Security 229
9.3.2.1 Physical Layer 229
9.3.2.2 Communication Layer 230
9.3.2.3 Database Layer 230
9.3.2.4 Interface Layer 230
9.4 Blockchain Public Key Security 231
9.4.1 Hash Function Security 232
9.4.2 Characteristics and Post-Quantum Schemes of Blockchain 232
9.5 Quantum Threats on Blockchain Enabled Smart City 233
9.5.1 Shor’s Algorithm 233
9.5.1.1 Modular Exponentiation 233
9.5.1.2 Factoring 234
9.5.2 Grover’s Algorithm 234
9.6 Post-Quantum Blockchain–Based Smart City Solutions 235
9.6.1 Lattice-Based Cryptography 235
9.6.2 Quantum Distributed Key 235
9.6.3 Quantum Entanglement in Time 236
9.7 Quantum Computing Fast Evolution 236
9.7.1 Transition—Pre-Quantum Blockchain to Post-Quantum Blockchain 237
9.7.2 Large Scale and Signature Size 237
9.7.3 Slow Key Generation 237
9.7.4 Computational and Energy Efficiency 237
9.7.5 Bockchain Hardware Unusability 238
9.7.6 Overheads Due to Large Ciphertext 238
9.7.7 Quantum Blockchain 238
9.8 Conclusion 238
References 239
10 Quantum Protocols for Hash-Based Blockchain 241
Sathya K., Premalatha J., Balamurugan Balusamy and Sarumathi Murali
10.1 Introduction 242
10.2 Consensus Protocols 242
10.2.1 Proof of Work (PoW) 243
10.2.2 Proof of Stake (PoS) 243
10.2.3 Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS) 244
10.2.4 Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT) 245
10.2.5 Proof of Capacity 245
10.2.6 Proof of Elapsed Time 246
10.3 Quantum Blockchain 246
10.3.1 Quantum Protocols in Blockchain 247
10.3.1.1 Quantum Bit Commitment Protocols 247
10.3.1.2 Quantum Voting Protocols 249
10.4 Quantum Honest-Success Byzantine Agreement (QHBA) Protocol 255
10.5 MatRiCT Protocol 258
10.5.1 Setting Up the System Parameters 259
10.5.2 Generation of Public-Private Key Pairs 259
10.5.3 Generation of Serial Number for the Given Secret Key 260
10.5.4 Creation of Coins 260
10.5.5 Spending the Coins in Transaction 260
10.5.6 Verifying the Transaction 260
10.6 Conclusion 261
References 261
11 Post-Quantum Blockchain–Enabled Services in Scalable Smart Cities 263
Kumar Prateek and Soumyadev Maity
11.1 Introduction 264
11.1.1 Motivation and Contribution 265
11.2 Preliminaries 267
11.2.1 Quantum Computing 267
11.2.1.1 Basics of Quantum System 268
11.2.1.2 Architecture of Quantum System 268
11.2.1.3 Key Characteristics of Quantum Computing 269
11.2.1.4 Available Quantum Platform 269
11.2.2 Quantum Key Distribution 270
11.2.2.1 Discrete Variable QKD 270
11.2.2.2 Continuous Variable QKD 271
11.2.2.3 Measurement Device-Independent QKD 271
11.2.3 Blockchain 271
11.2.4 Reason for Blend of Blockchain and Quantum-Based Security in Applications Within Smart Cities 272
11.3 Related Work 273
11.4 Background of Proposed Work 274
11.4.1 Design Goal of Proposed Work 275
11.4.1.1 Impersonation Attack 275
11.4.1.2 Sybil Attack 275
11.4.1.3 Message Modification Attack 275
11.4.1.4 Message Replay Attack 276
11.4.1.5 Denial-of-Service Attack 276
11.4.1.6 Source Authentication 276
11.4.1.7 Message Integrity 276
11.4.1.8 Identity Privacy Preservation 277
11.4.2 Conversion of Bits From One State to Another 277
11.4.3 Decision Sequence 277
11.4.4 Interconversion Rule 277
11.4.5 Measurement Sequence 277
11.4.6 Template and Encrypted Key Generation 278
11.5 Proposed Work 278
11.5.1 System Architecture 280
11.5.2 Quantum Information Transmission 281
11.5.3 Life Cycle of Smart Contract 283
11.5.4 Algorithm Design and Flow 285
11.5.4.1 Stage 1: Contract Development 285
11.5.4.2 Stage 2: Contract Release 287
11.5.4.3 Step 3: Contract Execution 287
11.6 Conclusion 287
References 288
12 Security Threats and Privacy Challenges in the Quantum Blockchain: A Contemporary Survey 293
K. Sentamilselvan, Suresh P., Kamalam G. K., Muthukrishnan H., Logeswaran K. and Keerthika P.
12.1 Introduction 294
12.2 Types of Blockchain 297
12.2.1 Public Blockchain 297
12.2.2 Private Blockchain 298
12.2.3 Hybrid Blockchain 298
12.2.4 Consortium Blockchain 298
12.3 Quantum Blockchain: State of the Art 298
12.3.1 Blockchain Consensus Algorithm 299
12.3.1.1 Proof of Work 300
12.3.1.2 Proof of Stake 300
12.3.1.3 Proof of Activity 301
12.3.2 Quantum Computation Algorithms 301
12.3.2.1 Grover’s Algorithm 301
12.3.2.2 Shor’s Algorithm 302
12.4 Voting Protocol 303
12.4.1 Voting on Quantum Blockchain 304
12.4.2 Security Requirements 305
12.4.2.1 Obscurity 305
12.4.2.2 Binding 305
12.4.2.3 Non-Reusability 305
12.4.2.4 Verifiability 305
12.4.2.5 Eligibility 306
12.4.2.6 Fairness 306
12.4.2.7 Self-Tallying 306
12.5 Security and Privacy Issues in Quantum Blockchain 306
12.5.1 Public Key Cryptography 306
12.5.2 Hash Functions 307
12.6 Challenges and Research Perspective in Quantum Blockchain 308
12.6.1 Fast Evolution in Quantum Computing 308
12.6.2 Transition From Pre- to Post-Quantum Blockchain 308
12.6.3 Computational and Energy Efficiency 309
12.6.4 Standardization 309
12.6.5 Hardware Incompatibility in Quantum Blockchain 309
12.6.6 Large Cipher Text Overheads 309
12.6.7 Quantum Blockchain 310
12.7 Security Threats in Quantum Blockchain 310
12.7.1 Threats in Smart City Implementation 310
12.8 Applications of Quantum Blockchain 311
12.8.1 Banking and Finance 311
12.8.2 Healthcare 311
12.8.3 Food Industry 311
12.8.4 Asset Trading 312
12.8.5 E-Payment 312
12.8.6 Government Sector 312
12.8.7 IOTA in Quantum Blockchain 312
12.9 Characteristics of Post-Quantum Blockchain Schemes 313
12.9.1 Small Key Size 313
12.9.2 Small Hash Length and Signature 313
12.9.3 Processing Speed of Data 313
12.9.4 Low Energy Consumption 313
12.9.5 Low Computational Complexity 314
12.10 Conclusion 314
References 314
13 Exploration of Quantum Blockchain Techniques Towards Sustainable Future Cybersecurity 317
H. Muthukrishnan, P. Suresh, K. Logeswaran and K. Sentamilselvan
13.1 Introduction to Blockchain 318
13.1.1 Blockchain History 319
13.1.2 Why Blockchain? 322
13.2 Insights on Quantum Computing 322
13.2.1 Quantum Supremacy 323
13.2.2 What is Quantum Supremacy? 324
13.2.3 Is Quantum Computing a Cybersecurity Threat? 325
13.2.4 Quantum Computing is not a Real Threat to Cryptocurrencies 326
13.2.5 Need for Quantum Computing in Blockchain 328
13.2.6 Ensuring a Secure, Functioning, and Resilient Critical Infrastructure 329
13.2.7 Critical Infrastructure’s Unique Threat Landscape 329
13.2.8 Response to the Quantum Threat and Blockchain 330
13.2.9 Ethereum 2.0 will be Quantum Resistant 331
13.3 Quantum Computing Algorithms 332
13.3.1 Grover’s Algorithm 332
13.3.2 Shor’s Algorithm 332
13.4 Quantum Secured Blockchain 333
13.4.1 Cybersecurity 334
13.4.2 Cyber-Physical Systems 335
13.4.3 Cybercrime and Cybersecurity Challenges 335
13.4.4 Community Cybersecurity Maturity Model 336
13.4.5 Cybersecurity in Smart Grid Systems 337
13.4.6 Smart Cities: Sustainable Future 338
13.5 Conclusion 339
References 339
14 Estimation of Bitcoin Price Trends Using Supervised Learning Approaches 341
Prasannavenkatesan Theerthagiri
14.1 Introduction 341
14.1.1 Bitcoin 341
14.1.2 COVID-19 and Bitcoin 342
14.1.3 Price Prediction 343
14.2 Related Work 343
14.3 Methodology 344
14.3.1 Data Collection 344
14.3.2 Feature Engineering and Evaluation 345
14.3.3 Modeling 345
14.3.3.1 Linear Regression 346
14.3.3.2 Random Forest 346
14.3.3.3 Support Vector Machine 346
14.3.3.4 Recurrent Neural Network 347
14.3.3.5 Long Short-Term Memory 347
14.3.3.6 Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average 348
14.4 Implementation of the Proposed Work 349
14.5 Results Evaluation and Discussion 352
14.6 Conclusion 353
References 353
Index 357
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