Reason & Argument

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ISBN: 9780136246022 | 0136246028
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 6/12/1998

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This book presents a clear and philosophically sound method for identifying, interpreting, and evaluating arguments as they appear in non-technical sources. It focuses on a more functional,real-world goal of argument analysis as a tool for figuring out what is reasonable to believe rather than as an instrument of persuasion. Develops a precise, step-by-step method for analyzing arguments about a variety of topics -- shows how to rewrite arguments in a format that makes them clearer and makes their evaluation easier; and then how to evaluate the rewritten argument. Illustrates methods by applying them to both serious and humorous arguments about different topics as they appear in a variety of contexts -- e.g., newspaper and magazine editorials and columns, short essays, informal reports of scientific results, etc. Uses simple, relatively non-controversial examples to illustrate the basic ideas and concepts, and then offers more complicated and controversial examples for challenging applications. For anyone interested in identifying, interpreting, and evaluating arguments as they appear in non- technical sources.

Preface

xiii

PART I CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS

(112)

Chapter 1 Introduction

(23)

I. ARGUMENTS

(8)

II. REASON, RHETORIC, AND ARGUMENT ANALYSIS

(6)

III. WAYS PEOPLE DEAL WITH ARGUMENTS

(2)

IV. IMPEDIMENTS TO GOOD REASONING

(3)

A. Lack of an Adequate Vocabulary

(1)

B. The Desire to Be Tolerant and Open-Minded

(1)

C. Misunderstanding the Point of Argument Analysis

(1)

D. Misconceptions about Truth and Rationality

(1)

E. The Use of Argument Stoppers

(1)

V. SUMMARY

(1)

Checklist of Key Terms

(1)

Chapter Exercises

(3)

Chapter 2 Truth and Rationality

(31)

I. USES OF LANGUAGE

(2)

II. TRUTH AND CORRESPONDENCE TO THE FACTS

(7)

A. The Basic Idea

(1)

B. A Mistaken Objection to the Correspondence Principle

(1)

C. Improving upon the Basic Idea

(3)

D. Some Consequences of the Revised Correspondence Principle

(2)

III. RATIONAL BELIEF

(16)

A. Belief, Disbelief, and Suspension of Judgment

(3)

B. Belief and Truth

(1)

C. Belief and Disagreement

(3)

D. Reasons for Belief

(8)

E. Rationality, Relativity, and Objectivity

(2)

IV. SUMMARY

(2)

Checklist of Key Terms

(1)

Chapter Exercises

(3)

Chapter 3 Well-Formed Arguments

(39)

I. ARGUMENT ANALYSIS

(5)

A. The Standard Form of Arguments

(2)

B. The Steps of Argument Analysis

(1)

C. Evaluating Arguments: An Introduction

(3)

II. WELL-FORMED ARGUMENTS

(29)

A. Validity

(19)

B. Cogency

(9)

III. VALIDITY, COGENCY, AND THE TRUTH VALUE OF PREMISES

(1)

IV. SUMMARY

(2)

Checklist of Key Terms

(1)

Chapter Exercises

(2)

Chapter 4 Strong Arguments

(19)

I. DEDUCTIVE STRENGTH

(8)

A. The Definition of Deductive Strength

(2)

B. Comments on the Definition of Deductive Strength

(6)

II. INDUCTIVE STRENGTH

102

(6)

A. The Definition of Inductive Strength

102

(3)

B. Comments on the Definition of Inductive Strength

105

(3)

III. SUMMARY

108

(2)

Checklist of Key Terms

110

(1)

Chapter Exercises

110

(3)

PART 2 THE METHOD OF ARGUMENT ANALYSIS

113

(103)

Chapter 5 Reconstructing Arguments

113

(36)

I. ARGUMENT RECONSTRUCTION AND THE PRINCIPLE OF CHARITY

113

(2)

II. DISTINGUISHING ARGUMENTS FROM NONARGUMENTS

115

(7)

III. IDENTIFYING PREMISES AND CONCLUSIONS

122

(7)

A. Identifying Conclusions

122

(3)

B. Identifying Premises

125

(4)

IV. GENERAL AND SPECIFIC PREMISES

129

(3)

V. ADDING IMPLICIT PREMISES

132

(11)

A. Implicit Premises That Are Not Generalizations

132

(2)

B. Implicit Premises That Are Generalizations

134

(9)

VI. CHEAP VALIDITY

143

(3)

VII. SUMMARY

146

(1)

Checklist of Key Terms

147

(1)

Chapter Exercises

147

(2)

Chapter 6 Details of Argument Reconstruction

149

(18)

I. IMPROPER WORDING

149

(4)

II. MISSING PREMISES

153

(6)

III. INCLUDING UNNECESSARY PREMISES

159

(5)

IV. SUMMARY

164

(1)

Checklist of Key Terms

165

(1)

Chapter Exercises

166

(1)

Chapter 7 Evaluating Arguments

167

(49)

I. BASIC RULES OF ARGUMENT EVALUATION

167

(8)

A. Don't Criticize an Argument by Denying Its Conclusion

167

(2)

B. Don't Accept an Argument Simply Because You Believe the Conclusion

169

(1)

C. Direct Criticisms at Individual Premises

169

(1)

D. Make Your Criticisms of Premises Substantial

170

(2)

E. Don't Accept Competing Arguments

172

(1)

F. Don't Object to Intermediate Conclusions of Compound Arguments

173

(2)

II. EVALUATING SPECIFIC TYPES OF PREMISES

175

(14)

A. Specific Factual Claims

175

(1)

B. Generalizations

176

(2)

C. Compound Sentences

178

(11)

III. ARGUMENT ANALYSIS AND PROBLEMS OF MEANING

189

(22)

A. Arguments and Meaning

189

(6)

B. Ambiguity and Arguments

195

(6)

C. Vagueness and Arguments

201

(6)

D. Arguments with Incomplete Premises

207

(4)

IV. SUMMARY

211

(2)

Checklist of Key Terms

213

(1)

Chapter Exercises

214

(2)

PART 3 APPLICATIONS

216

(195)

Chapter 8 Arguments and Testimony

216

(16)

I. THE ROLE OF TESTIMONY

216

(2)

II. TESTIMONIAL ARGUMENTS

218

(7)

A. The Standard Form for Testimonial Arguments

218

(5)

B. Evaluating the Premises of Testimonial Arguments

223

(1)

C. Determining Whether a Testimonial Argument is Defeated

224

(1)

III. PREMISES AND TESTIMONY

225

(4)

IV. SUMMARY

229

(1)

Checklist of Key Terms

230

(1)

Chapter Exercises

230

(2)

Chapter 9 Statistical Arguments and Predictions

232

(45)

I. PAST TO FUTURE ARGUMENTS

232

(5)

II. SIMPLE STATISTICAL STATEMENTS

237

(3)

III. THE STANDARD PATTERN FOR SURVEY ARGUMENTS

240

(7)

IV. EVALUATING SURVEY ARGUMENTS

247

(11)

A. Evaluating Sample Results

247

(1)

B. Evaluating the Accuracy Premises

247

(3)

C. Evaluating the Representativeness Premise

250

(8)

V. CORRELATIONS

258

(11)

A. Correlation Statements

258

(5)

B. Arguments for Correlations

263

(6)

VI. SUMMARY

269

(2)

Checklist of Key Terms

271

(1)

Chapter Exercises

272

(5)

Chapter 10 Causal Arguments

277

(51)

I. CAUSAL STATEMENTS

278

(6)

A. Explicitly Causal Statements and Implicitly Causal Statements

278

(1)

B. Singular and General Causal Statements

279

(1)

C. Events and Objects as Causes

279

(1)

D. Immediate and Distant Causes

280

(1)

E. Partial and Complete Causes

280

(1)

F. The Standard Form of General Causal Statements

281

(1)

G. Comparative Causal Claims

281

(3)

II. THE MEANING OF GENERAL CAUSAL STATEMENTS

284

(4)

III. KNOWLEDGE OF GENERAL CAUSAL STATEMENTS

288

(6)

A. Causation and Observation

288

(1)

B. Causation and Common Sense

289

(1)

C. Causation and Correlation

289

(5)

IV. ANALYZING CAUSAL ARGUMENTS

294

(22)

A. A Pattern for Causal Arguments

295

(5)

B. Scientific Studies and Causal Arguments

300

(5)

C. Reports of Scientific Studies

305

(11)

V. COMMON ERRORS IN CAUSAL REASONING

316

(4)

VI. SUMMARY

320

(2)

Checklist of Key Terms

322

(1)

Chapter Exercises

323

(5)

Chapter 11 Moral Arguments

328

(49)

I. MORAL PROPOSITIONS

329

(7)

A. Moral Issues

329

(4)

B. Incomplete Moral Sentences

333

(1)

C. Actions and Agents

333

(3)

II. MORALITY, RATIONALITY, AND TRUTH

336

(8)

A. Doubts about Moral Reasoning

336

(6)

B. Reasoning About Morality

342

(2)

III. ANALYZING MORAL ARGUMENTS

344

(13)

A. Harms and Benefits

344

(1)

B. Simple Moral Arguments

345

(4)

C. The Overall Value Principle

349

(2)

D. Overall Value Arguments

351

(6)

IV. COMMON PROBLEMS IN MORAL REASONING

357

(9)

A. Moral Inconsistency Arguments

357

(3)

B. Moral Principles

360

(6)

V. SUMMARY

366

(2)

Checklist of Key Terms

368

(1)

Chapter Exercises

368

(9)

Chapter 12 Extended Examples

377

(34)

I. THE ABORTION DEBATE

377

(13)

II. MATHEMATICAL REASONING ABILITY

390

(7)

Chapter Exercises

397

(14)

Appendix A The Steps of Argument Analysis

411

(3)

Appendix B Principles, Definitions, and Patterns of Argument

414

(7)

Appendix C Answers to Selected Exercises

421

(26)

Glossary

447

(10)

Index

457

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Reason & Argument

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials