Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology (with CD-ROM and InfoTrac)

, by Maxfield, Michael G.; Babbie, Earl R.

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ISBN: 9780534615604 | 0534615600
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 2/19/2004

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Part One: AN INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINAL JUSTICE INQUIRY. 1. Crime, Criminal Justice, and Scientific Inquiry. 2. Theory and Criminal Justice Research. 3. Ethics and Criminal Justice Research. Part Two: STRUCTURING CRIMINAL JUSTICE INQUIRY. 4. General Issues in Research Design. 5. Concepts, Operationalization, and Measurement. 6. Measuring Crime. 7. Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs. Part Three: MODES OF OBSERVATION. 8. Overview of Data Collections and Sampling. 9. Survey Research and Other Ways of Asking Questions. 10. Field Research. 11. Agency Records, Content Analysis, and Secondary Data. Part Four: APPLICATION AND ANALYSIS. 12. Evaluation Research and Policy Analysis. 13. Interpreting Data. Glossary. Bibliography. Name Index. Subject Index.

Preface

PART ONE: An Introduction to Criminal Justice Inquiry

(76)

Crime, Criminal Justice, and Scientific Inquiry

(27)

Introduction

(1)

Home Detention

(1)

What Is This Book About?

(3)

Two Realities

(2)

The Role of Science

(1)

Personal Human Inquiry

(2)

Tradition

(1)

Arrest and Domestic Violence

(1)

Authority

(1)

Errors in Personal Human Inquiry

(2)

Inaccurate Observation

(1)

Overgeneralization

(1)

Selective Observation

(1)

Illogical Reasoning

(1)

Ideology and Politics

(1)

To Err Is Human

(1)

Foundations of Social Science

(8)

Theory, Not Philosophy or Belief

(1)

Regularities

(1)

What About Exceptions?

(1)

Aggregates, Not Individuals

(1)

A Variable Language

(1)

Variables and Attributes

(3)

Variables and Relationships

(1)

Purposes of Research

(2)

Exploration

(1)

Description

(1)

Explanation

(1)

Application

(1)

Differing Avenues for Inquiry

(5)

Ideographic and Nomothetic Explanations

(1)

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

(1)

Quantitative and Qualitative Data

(1)

Putting It All Together: Why Did Crime Go Up (or Down) in New York City?

(2)

Ethics and Criminal Justice Research

(1)

Knowing Through Experience: Summing Up and Looking Ahead

(1)

Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercise·InfoTrac College Edition·Additional Readings

(2)

Theory and Criminal Justice Research

(22)

Introduction

(1)

The Creation of Social Science Theory

(12)

The Traditional Model of Science

(4)

Two Logical Systems

(2)

Grounded Theory and Community Prosecution

(4)

Terms Used in Theory Construction

(2)

Theory in Criminal Justice

(6)

Law Breaking

(2)

Policy Responses

(1)

Theory, Research, and Public Policy

(1)

Putting It All Together: New York's Secret? Purposive Action

(1)

Ecological Theories of Crime and Crime Prevention Policy

(2)

Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercise·InfoTrac College Edition·Additional Readings

(3)

Ethics and Criminal Justice Research

(26)

Introduction

(1)

Ethical Issues in Criminal Justice Research

(11)

No Harm to Participants

(1)

Ethics and Extreme Field Research

(2)

Voluntary Participation

(1)

Anonymity and Confidentiality

(1)

Deceiving Subjects

(1)

Analysis and Reporting

(1)

Legal Liability

(1)

Special Problems

(3)

Promoting Compliance with Ethical Principles

(6)

Codes of Professional Ethics

(1)

Institutional Review Boards

(2)

Ethics and Juvenile Gang Members

(1)

Institutional Review Board Requirements and Researcher Rights

(2)

Two Ethical Controversies

(4)

Trouble in the Tearoom

(1)

Putting it all Together: Confidentiality in Police Research

(1)

The Stanford Prison Experiment

(3)

Discussion Examples

(1)

Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercise·InfoTrac College Edition·Additional Readings

(3)

PART TWO: Structuring Criminal Justice Inquiry

(130)

General Issues in Research Design

(36)

Introduction

(1)

Causation in the Social Sciences

(3)

Criteria for Causality

(1)

Necessary and Sufficient Causes

(1)

Molar and Micromediational Causal Statements

(1)

Validity and Causal Inference

(7)

Statistical Conclusion Validity

(1)

Internal Validity

(1)

Construct Validity

(2)

External Validity

(1)

Validity and Causal Inference Summarized

(1)

Does Drug Use Cause Crime?

(1)

Putting it all Together: Causation and Declining Crime in New York City

(1)

Introducing Scientific Realism

(1)

Units of Analysis

(5)

Individuals

(1)

Groups

(1)

Organizations

(1)

Social Artifacts

(1)

Units of Analysis in Review

(1)

The Ecological Fallacy

(1)

Reductionism

(1)

The Time Dimension

(7)

Units of Analysis in the National Youth Gang Survey

(1)

Cross-Sectional Studies

(1)

Longitudinal Studies

(1)

Approximating Longitudinal Studies

(1)

Retrospective Studies

(1)

The Time Dimension Summarized

100

(2)

Putting it all Together: Units and Time in New York City

102

(1)

How to Design a Research Project

102

(7)

The Research Process

103

(2)

Getting Started

105

(1)

Conceptualization

106

(1)

Choice of Research Method

106

(1)

Operationalization

107

(1)

Population and Sampling

107

(1)

Observations

107

(1)

Data Processing

107

(1)

Analysis

107

(1)

Application

108

(1)

Research Design in Review

108

(1)

The Research Proposal

109

(2)

Elements of a Research Proposal

110

(1)

Answers to the Units-of-Analysis Exercise

111

(1)

Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercises·InfoTrac College·Edition·Additional Readings

111

(3)

Concepts, Operationalization, and Measurement

114

(28)

Introduction

115

(1)

Conceptions and Concepts

115

(7)

Conceptualization

117

(1)

Indicators and Dimensions

117

(1)

Confusion over Definitions and Reality

118

(1)

Creating Conceptual Order

118

(2)

What Is Recidivism?

120

(2)

Operationalization Choices

122

(6)

Measurement as ``Scoring''

122

(2)

Jail Stay

124

(1)

Exhaustive and Exclusive Measurement

125

(1)

Levels of Measurement

125

(2)

Implications of Levels of Measurement

127

(1)

Criteria for Measurement Quality

128

(6)

Reliability

129

(2)

Validity

131

(3)

Composite Measures

134

(3)

Typologies

134

(1)

An Index of Disorder

135

(2)

Measurement Summary

137

(1)

Putting It All Together: What's A Police Activity?

138

(1)

Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercise·InfoTrac College Edition·Additional Readings

138

(4)

Measuring Crime

142

(32)

Introduction

143

(1)

General Issues in Measuring Crime

143

(3)

What Offenses?

144

(1)

What Units of Analysis?

144

(1)

What Purpose?

145

(1)

Units of Analysis and Measuring Crime

146

(1)

Crimes Known to Police

146

(7)

Uniform Crime Reports

147

(2)

The UCR and Criteria for Measurement Quality

149

(1)

Incident-Based Police Records

149

(1)

The National Incident-Based Reporting System

150

(2)

NIBRS and Criteria for Measurement Quality

152

(1)

Measuring Crime Through Victim Surveys

153

(6)

The National Crime Victimization Study

153

(2)

NCVS Redesign

155

(2)

Community Victimization Surveys

157

(1)

Comparing Victim Surveys and Crimes Known to Police

158

(1)

Surveys of Offending

159

(4)

National Household Surveys on Drug Abuse

160

(1)

Monitoring the Future

161

(1)

Validity and Reliability of Self-Report Measures

162

(1)

Self-Report Surveys Summarized

162

(1)

Drug Surveillance Systems

163

(3)

Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring

163

(1)

The Drug Abuse Warning Network

164

(1)

Pulse Check

165

(1)

Measuring Crime for Specific Purposes

166

(4)

Local Crime Surveys

167

(1)

Putting it all Together: Measuring Crime in New York City

168

(1)

Incident-Based Crime Records

168

(1)

Observing Crime

169

(1)

Measuring Crime Summary

170

(1)

Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercises·InfoTrac College·Edition·Additional Readings

171

(3)

Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs

174

(33)

Introduction

175

(1)

The Classical Experiment

176

(4)

Independent and Dependent Variables

176

(1)

Pretesting and Posttesting

177

(1)

Experimental and Control Groups

177

(2)

Double-Blind Experiments

179

(1)

Selecting Subjects

180

(1)

Randomization

180

(1)

Experiments and Causal Inference

180

(9)

Experiments and Threats to Validity

181

(1)

Threats to Internal Validity

181

(4)

Ruling Out Threats to Internal Validity

185

(1)

Generalizability and Threats to Validity

186

(1)

Threats to Construct Validity

186

(2)

Threats to External Validity

188

(1)

Threats to Statistical Conclusion Validity

188

(1)

Variations in the Classical Experimental Design

189

(1)

Quasi-Experimental Designs

190

(13)

Nonequivalent-Group Designs

191

(3)

Cohort Designs

194

(1)

Time-Series Designs

195

(3)

Variations in Time-Series Designs

198

(1)

Variable-Oriented Research and Scientific Realism

199

(1)

Putting It All Together: A Variety of Designs in New York City

200

(3)

Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs Summarized

203

(1)

Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercise·InfoTrac College Edition·Additional Readings

203

(4)

PART THREE: Modes of Observation

207

(146)

Overview of Data Collection and Sampling

208

(37)

Introduction

209

(1)

Three Sources of Data

210

(3)

Asking Directions

210

(1)

Making Direct Observations

210

(1)

Examining Written Records

211

(1)

Using Multiple Data Sources

211

(1)

Putting It All Together: Using Three Types of Data in New York City

212

(1)

General Issues in Data Collection

213

(4)

Measurement Validity and Reliability

213

(1)

Multiple Measures in Home Detention

214

(1)

Obtrusive and Unobtrusive Measures

215

(1)

Be Careful, but Be Creative

216

(1)

The Logic of Probability Sampling

217

(3)

Conscious and Unconscious Sampling Bias

217

(2)

Representativeness and Probability of Selection

219

(1)

Probability Theory and Sampling Distribution

220

(8)

The Sampling Distribution in 10 Cases

221

(2)

From Sampling Distribution to Parameter Estimate

223

(3)

Estimating Sampling Error

226

(1)

Confidence Levels and Confidence Intervals

227

(1)

Random Sampling and Probability Theory Summed Up

228

(1)

Populations and Sampling Frames

228

(1)

Types of Sampling Designs

229

(6)

Simple Random Sampling

229

(1)

Systematic Sampling

230

(1)

Stratified Sampling

230

(1)

Disproportionate Stratified Sampling

231

(1)

Multistage Cluster Sampling

232

(1)

Multistage Cluster Sampling with Stratification

233

(2)

Illustration: Two National Crime Surveys

235

(2)

The National Crime Victimization Survey

236

(1)

The British Crime Survey

236

(1)

Probability Sampling in Review

237

(1)

Nonprobability Sampling

237

(5)

Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

237

(1)

Putting It All Together: Sampling New York City Police Precincts

238

(1)

Quota Sampling

239

(1)

Reliance on Available Subjects

240

(1)

Snowball Sampling

241

(1)

Nonprobability Sampling in Review

242

(1)

Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercise·InfoTrac College Edition·Additional Readings

242

(3)

Survey Research and Other Ways of Asking Questions

245

(36)

Introduction

246

(1)

Topics Appropriate to Survey Research

247

(3)

Counting Crime

247

(1)

Self-Reports

247

(1)

Perceptions and Attitudes

248

(1)

Policy Proposals

248

(1)

Targeted Victim Surveys

249

(1)

Other Evaluation Uses

249

(1)

General-Purpose Crime Surveys

250

(1)

Guidelines for Asking Questions

250

(4)

Open-Ended and Closed-Ended Questions

250

(1)

Questions and Statements

251

(1)

Make Items Clear

251

(1)

Short Items Are Best

252

(1)

Avoid Negative Items

252

(1)

Biased Items and Terms

252

(1)

Designing Self-Report Items

253

(1)

Questionnaire Construction

254

(4)

General Questionnaire Format

254

(1)

Contingency Questions

255

(1)

Matrix Questions

256

(2)

Ordering Questions in a Questionnaire

258

(1)

Self-Administered Questionnaires

258

(5)

Don't Start From Scratch!

259

(1)

Mail Distribution and Return

260

(1)

Warning Mailings and Cover Letters

260

(1)

Follow-Up Mailings

261

(1)

Acceptable Response Rates

261

(1)

Computer-Based Self-Administration

262

(1)

In-Person Interview Surveys

263

(4)

The Role of the Interviewer

263

(1)

General Rules for Interviewing

264

(1)

Coordination and Control

265

(1)

Computer-Assisted In-Person Interviews

265

(2)

Telephone Surveys

267

(3)

Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing

269

(1)

Comparison of the Three Methods

270

(1)

Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research

271

(2)

Other Ways of Asking Questions

273

(3)

Specialized Interviewing

273

(1)

Focus Groups

274

(2)

Putting It All Together: Asking Questions in New York City

276

(1)

Should You do it Yourself?

276

(2)

Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercise·InfoTrac College Edition·Additional Readings

278

(3)

Field Research

281

(37)

Introduction

282

(1)

Topics Appropriate to Field Research

283

(2)

The Various Roles of the Observer

285

(2)

Asking Questions

287

(2)

Gaining Access to Subjects

289

(7)

Gaining Access to Formal Organizations

289

(1)

Gaining Access to Subcultures

289

(4)

Selecting Cases for Observation

293

(1)

Purposive Sampling in Field Research

294

(2)

Recording Observations

296

(4)

Cameras and Tape Recorders

297

(1)

Field Notes

298

(1)

Structured Observations

299

(1)

Linking Field Observations and Other Data

300

(2)

Illustrations of Field Research

302

(10)

Shoplifting

303

(1)

Conducting a Safety Audit

304

(2)

How Many People Wear Seat Belts?

306

(1)

``Driving While Black''

307

(1)

Bars and Violence

308

(2)

Putting It All Together: Field Research in New York City

310

(2)

Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Research

312

(3)

Validity

313

(1)

Reliability

314

(1)

Generalizability

314

(1)

Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercise·InfoTrac College Edition·Additional Readings

315

(3)

Agency Records, Content Analysis, and Secondary Data

318

(35)

Introduction

319

(1)

Topics Appropriate for Agency Records and Content Analysis

320

(1)

Types of Agency Records

321

(10)

Published Statistics

321

(3)

Nonpublic Agency Records

324

(4)

New Data Collected by Agency Staff

328

(2)

Improving Police Records of Domestic Violence

330

(1)

Units of Analysis and Sampling

331

(2)

Units of Analysis

332

(1)

Sampling

333

(1)

Reliability and Validity

333

(5)

Sources of Reliability and Validity Problems

334

(2)

How Many Parole Violators Were There Last Month?

336

(2)

Content Analysis

338

(7)

Units of Analysis and Sampling in Content Analysis

339

(2)

Coding in Content Analysis

341

(2)

Illustrations of Content Analysis

343

(2)

Secondary Analysis

345

(5)

Sources of Secondary Data

346

(1)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data

347

(1)

Putting It All Together: NYPD Agency Records

348

(2)

Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercise·InfoTrac College Edition·Additional Readings

350

(3)

PART FOUR: Application and Analysis

353

(81)

Evaluation Research and Policy Analysis

354

(38)

Introduction

355

(1)

Topics Appropriate for Evaluation Research and Policy Analysis

356

(4)

The Policy Process

356

(2)

Linking the Process to Evaluation

358

(2)

Getting Started

360

(7)

Evaluability Assessment

361

(1)

Problem Formulation

362

(2)

Measurement

364

(3)

Designs for Program Evaluation

367

(9)

Randomized Evaluation Designs

367

(3)

Home Detention: Two Randomized Studies

370

(3)

Quasi-Experimental Designs

373

(3)

Other Types of Evaluation Studies

376

(1)

Policy Analysis and Scientific Realism

376

(9)

Modeling Prison Populations

377

(3)

Other Applications of Policy Analysis

380

(2)

Scientific Realism and Applied Research

382

(2)

Putting It All Together: Applied Research in the NYPD

384

(1)

The Political Context of Applied Research

385

(4)

Evaluation and Stakeholders

386

(1)

Politics and Objectivity

387

(1)

When Politics Accommodate Facts

388

(1)

Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercise·InfoTrac College Edition·Additional Readings

389

(3)

Interpreting Data

392

(42)

Introduction

393

(1)

Univariate Description

393

(8)

Distributions

394

(1)

Measures of Central Tendency

394

(1)

Measures of Dispersion

395

(3)

Comparing Measures of Dispersion and Central Tendency

398

(2)

Computing Rates

400

(1)

Detail Versus Manageability

401

(1)

Describing Two or More Variables

401

(17)

Bivariate Analysis

402

(3)

Multivariate Analysis

405

(1)

Murder on the Job

406

(4)

Measures of Association

410

(6)

Putting It All Together: Analyzing NYPD Crime Data

416

(2)

Inferential Statistics

418

(13)

Univariate Inferences

418

(1)

Tests of Statistical Significance

419

(1)

The Logic of Statistical Significance

419

(5)

Visualizing Statistical Significance

424

(2)

Chi Square

426

(2)

Cautions in Interpreting Statistical Significance

428

(1)

Visualizing Discernible Differences

429

(2)

Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercise·InfoTrac College Edition·Additional Readings

431

(3)

Glossary

434

(8)

Bibliography

442

(14)

Name Index

456

(3)

Subject Index

459

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Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology (with CD-ROM and InfoTrac)

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials