Resistance Welding: Fundamentals and Applications, Second Edition

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ISBN: 9781439853719 | 1439853711
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 12/13/2011

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Reflecting the rise of lighter-weight Mg alloys over steel and aluminum, this revised edition examines Mg alloys in depth and highlights the range of progresses made in resistance welding research and practice. Addressing the difficulties of welding the far less robust Mg alloys, this book investigates the prevalence and mechanism of cracking and expulsion, as well as statistical tools for welding research and real-world applications. It offers a solid foundation for solving practical problems in a scientific and systematic manner.

Preface	p. xv
Authors	p. xi
Welding Metallurgy	p. 1
Solidification in Resistance Spot Welding	p. 1
Metallurgical Characteristics of Metals	p. 4
Steels	p. 5
Solid Transformations in Steels	p. 5
Transformations in HAZ of a Steel Weld	p. 8
Effect of Carbon Content	p. 12
Aluminum Alloys	p. 15
Classifications and Properties	p. 16
Resistance Welding Aluminum Alloys	p. 18
Magnesium Alloys	p. 21
Properties and Applications of Mg Alloys	p. 21
Welding Mg Alloys	p. 22
Resistance Welding Mg Alloys	p. 23
Copper Alloys	p. 27
Strengthening of Cu Alloys	p. 28
Classifications of Electrodes	p. 29
Copper Electrode and Coating/Sheet Interaction	p. 30
Embrittlement of Weldment	p. 34
Liquid Metal Embrittlement	p. 36
Hydrogen Embrittlement	p. 40
Intermetallic-Compound Embrittlement	p. 42
Cracking	p. 45
Solidification Cracking	p. 45
Liquation Cracking	p. 47
Corrosion Cracking	p. 47
References	p. 48
Electrothermal Processes of Welding	p. 53
Electrical Characteristics of Resistance Welding	p. 53
Bulk Resistance	p. 54
Contact Resistance	p. 55
Total Resistance	p. 57
Shunting	p. 59
Thermal Characteristics of Resistance Welding	p. 60
Electrode Life	p. 62
Welding Galvanized Steels	p. 62
Welding Aluminum Alloys	p. 64
Experiment	p. 65
Rapid Electrode Life Determination	p. 65
Electrode Life Test	p. 66
Relation between 60-Weld Electrodes and Electrode Life	p. 70
Heat Balance	p. 72
Law of Thermal Similarity	p. 72
Heat Balance	p. 73
Modified Heat Balance Theory	p. 75
Experimental Verification	p. 80
Electric Current Waveform	p. 82
Single-Phase AC	p. 84
Constant Current	p. 87
Half-Sine Current Profile	p. 87
Sinusoidal Current Profile	p. 89
Experiments	p. 90
Single-Phase DC	p. 92
Three-Phase DC	p. 93
Medium-Frequency DC	p. 94
References	p. 97
Weld Discontinuities	p. 101
Classification of Discontinuities	p. 101
External Discontinuities	p. 101
Internal Discontinuities	p. 107
Void Formation in Weld Nuggets	p. 111
Gas Bubbles	p. 111
Effect of Volume Shrinkage	p. 115
Cracking in Welding AA6U111 Alloys	p. 116
Cracking in Welding AA5754 Alloys	p. 119
Liquation Cracking in Aluminum Alloys	p. 120
Mechanisms of Cracking	p. 122
Metallurgical Effect	p. 123
Thermomechanical Effect	p. 125
Thermal Stress during Heating	p. 126
Thermal Stress during Cooling	p. 127
Influence of Other Factors	p. 130
Cracking Suppression	p. 130
Effect of Specimen Width and Electrode Geometry	p. 131
Effect of Welding Sequence	p. 131
Effect of Washer Clamping	p. 132
Effect of Current Shunting	p. 133
References	p. 135
Mechanical Testing	p. 137
Introduction	p. 137
Shop Floor Practices	p. 139
Chisel Test	p. 139
Peel (Roller) Test	p. 140
Bend Test	p. 140
Instrumented Tests	p. 141
Static Tests	p. 142
Tension Test	p. 142
Tension-Shear Test	p. 144
Combined Tension and Shear Test	p. 152
Dynamic Tests	p. 153
Fatigue Test	p. 154
Impact Test	p. 160
A New Impact Tester	p. 164
Torsion Test	p. 169
Twisting	p. 169
Torsional Shear Test	p. 169
References	p. 170
Resistance Welding Process Monitoring and Control	p. 173
Introduction	p. 173
Data Acquisition	p. 174
Process Monitoring	p. 176
Signals Commonly Monitored during Welding	p. 176
Electric Voltage	p. 179
Electric Current	p. 179
Dynamic Resistance	p. 179
Electrode Displacement	p. 181
Electrode Force	p. 183
Acoustic Emission	p. 185
Pneumatic Pressure Fluctuation	p. 186
Adaptive Noise Cancellation	p. 187
Relationship between-Monitored Signals and Welding Processes	p. 190
Effect of Process Conditions	p. 190
Fault Identification	p. 192
Expulsion Detection	p. 194
Process Control	p. 196
Lobe Diagrams	p. 197
Effect of Process Parameters and Weld Setup Variables	p. 197
Probabilistic Expulsion Boundaries in Lobe Diagrams	p. 199
Effect of Electrode Force	p. 200
3-D Lobe Diagrams	p. 202
Constant-Power Density	p. 203
Hypothesis	p. 204
Algorithm	p. 204
Algorithm Implementation	p. 205
Gain Scheduling	p. 206
Experimental Results	p. 207
Artificial Neural Network Modeling	p. 208
A Case Study of Using ANN for RSW Quality Control	p. 211
Current Stepping	p. 214
References	p. 216
Weld Quality and Inspection	p. 219
Weld Quality	p. 219
Weld Attributes	p. 219
Geometric Attributes	p. 219
Weld Performance	p. 220
Process Characteristics	p. 221
Weld Quality Requirements	p. 221
Relations between Weld Attributes and Strength	p. 224
Destructive Evaluation	p. 232
Peel Test	p. 233
Chisel Test	p. 233
Metallographic Test	p. 233
Nondestructive Evaluation	p. 235
Ultrasonic A-Scan	p. 236
A Case Study on R&R of an Ultrasonic A-Scanner	p. 238
Ultrasonic B-Scan	p. 244
Examining Various Welds Using a B-Scan System	p. 246
Identification of Cold Welds	p. 248
Relationship between Weld Attributes and Weld Strength	p. 253
References	p. 255
Expulsion in Resistance Spot Welding	p. 257
Influence of Expulsion on Spot Weld Quality	p. 257
Expulsion Process and Detection	p. 262
Expulsion Prediction and Prevention	p. 263
Geometry Comparison Model	p. 264
Force Balance Model	p. 265
The Principle	p. 265
Evaluation of Effective Electrode Force	p. 266
Pressures and Forces in Liquid Nugget	p. 269
Expulsion through Molten Liquid Network in HAZ	p. 276
Expulsion Characteristics of AZ91D	p. 277
Effect of Electrode Force	p. 280
Expulsion through a Network of Liquid Grain Boundaries	p. 281
Statistical Modeling	p. 282
Modeling Procedure	p. 284
Statistical Analysis	p. 286
Summary	p. 288
Examples	p. 288
Application of Force Balance Model	p. 289
Calculation of Pressures and Forces	p. 289
Experimental Verification	p. 292
Perspective Applications	p. 294
Examples of the Use of Statistical Model	p. 295
Experiments	p. 295
Discussion	p. 298
References	p. 304
Influence of Mechanical Characteristics of Welding Machines	p. 307
Introduction	p. 307
Mechanical Characteristics of Typical Spot Welders	p. 308
Influence of Machine Stiffness	p. 310
Effect on Electrode Force	p. 311
Effect on Electrode Displacement	p. 311
Effect on Electrode Touching Behavior	p. 313
Effect on Weld Formation	p. 313
Expulsion	p. 313
Effect on Weld Strength	p. 314
Effect on Electrode Alignment	p. 315
Stiffness and Damping Ratio Estimation	p. 315
Influence of Friction	p. 320
Effect on Electrode Force	p. 321
Effect on Electrode Displacement	p. 321
Effect on Microstructure	p. 322
Effect on Tensile-Shear Strength	p. 322
Influence of Moving Mass	p. 324
A Dynamic Force Analysis	p. 324
Effect on Weld Quality	p. 327
Follow-Up in a Welding Cycle	p. 328
Thermal Expansion	p. 328
Effect of a Pneumatic Cylinder	p. 329
Theoretical Analysis	p. 330
Experiment Results	p. 333
Squeeze Time and Hold Time Measurement	p. 335
Other Factors	p. 338
Electrode Alignment and Workpiece Stack-Up	p. 338
Electrode Force	p. 341
Materials	p. 342
References	p. 343
Numerical Simulation in Resistance Spot Welding	p. 347
Introduction	p. 347
Comparison between Finite Difference and Finite Element Methods	p. 348
Discretization	p. 348
Geometry	p. 348
Formulation	p. 349
Accuracy and Others	p. 350
Methods of RSW Process Simulation	p. 350
Coupled Electrical-Thermal-Mechanical Analysis	p. 352
A General (Three-Dimensional) Finite Element Model	p. 352
Formulation of Electrical Process	p. 352
Formulation of Heat Transfer Process	p. 353
Boundary Conditions	p. 353
Formulation of Thermomechanical Analysis	p. 354
Simulation of Melting and Solidification	p. 354
Finite Element Formulation	p. 355
Two-Dimensional Finite Element Modeling	p. 356
Formulation for Electrical Analysis	p. 356
Formulation for Thermal Analysis	p. 357
Finite Element Formulation	p. 357
Axisymmetric Problems	p. 358
Simulation of Contact Properties and Contact Area	p. 358
Simulation of Other Factors	p. 362
Effect of Zinc Coating	p. 362
Effect of Electric Current Profile	p. 362
Modeling of Microstructure Evolution	p. 363
Effect of Cooling Rate	p. 364
Microstructure Evolution in HAZ	p. 364
Simulation of Microstructure of a Nugget	p. 365
An Example of Simulating Microstructure Evolution in a Spot Weldment	p. 368
Examples of Numerical Simulation of RSW Processes	p. 369
Case Study I: Effect of Electrode Face Geometry	p. 369
Case Study II: Differences between Using Coupled and Uncoupled Algorithms	p. 371
Case Study III: Effect of Electrode Axial Misalignment	p. 372
Case Study IV: Effect of Angular Misahgnment of Domed Electrodes	p. 373
References	p. 376
Statistical Design, Analysis, and Inference in Resistance Welding Research	p. 379
Introduction	p. 379
Basic Concepts and Procedures	p. 380
Data Collection	p. 380
Statistical Modeling and Data Analysis	p. 381
Inference and Decision Making	p. 381
Experiment with Continuous Response	p. 383
Statistical Design	p. 383
Factorial Designs	p. 383
Orthogonal Arrays	p. 383
Second-Order Designs	p. 384
Robust Parameter Designs	p. 384
Nested Designs	p. 384
Use of Blocks	p. 385
Analysis and Modeling	p. 386
Use of Graphs	p. 386
Multiple Regression Model	p. 387
Residual Analysis	p. 389
Location-Dispersion Modeling for Variance Reduction	p. 389
Inference and Decision Making	p. .390
Factor Screening	p. 390
Treatment Comparison	p. :
Combination of Experiments	p. 393
Response Surface Exploration	p. 395
Variance Reduction	p. 397
Two-Stage Sliding-Level Experiments	p. 398
Experiment Design	p. 399
Analysis and Modeling	p. 400
Analysis of Current Range	p. 402
Analysis of Button Size	p. -.
Inference and Decision Making	p. 405
Experiments with Categorical Responses	p. 407
Experiment Design	p. 408
Analysis and Modeling	p. 408
Inference and Decision Making	p. 409
Statistical Analysis	p. 409
Coding System and Transformations	p. 410
Use of Pseudo-Data	p. 412
Analysis and Results	p. 413
Inference and Decision Making	p. 416
Computer Simulation Experiments	p. 416
Experiment Design	p. 417
Analysis and Modeling	p. 417
Planning of Numerical Experiments	p. 418
Results and Inference	p. 421
Summary	p. 425
References	p. 425
Index	p. 427
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Resistance Welding: Fundamentals and Applications, Second Edition

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Resistance Welding: Fundamentals and Applications, Second Edition

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