Rock Magnetism : Fundamentals and Frontiers

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ISBN: 9780521325141 | 0521325145
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 7/13/1997

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Rock Magnetism is a comprehensive treatment of fine particle magnetism and the magnetic properties of rocks. Starting from atomic magnetism and magnetostatic principles, the authors explain why domains and micromagnetic structures form in ferromagnetic crystals and how these lead to magnetic memory in the form of thermal, chemical and other remanent magnetizations. The phenomenal stability of these magnetizations, providing a record of plate tectonic motions over millions of years, is explained by thermal activation theory. One chapter is devoted to practical tests of domain state and paleomagnetic stability; another deals with pseudo-single-domain magnetism. The final four chapters place magnetism in the context of igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic, and extraterrestrial rocks. This book will be of great value to graduate students and researchers in geophysics and geology, particularly in paleomagnetism and rock magnetism, as well as physicists and electrical engineers interested in fine-particle magnetism and magnetic recording.

Preface

xix

Magnetism in nature

(15)

A brief history

(6)

Earth magnetism

(2)

Ferromagnetism and magnetic domains

(2)

Rock magnetism

(2)

How rock magnetism is applied

(8)

Magnetic lineations: the seafloor record of reversals

(1)

Other magnetic anomalies

(1)

Records of geomagnetic field variation

(2)

Paleointensity determination

(1)

Paleomagnetism and plate motions

(2)

Biomagnetism

(1)

Environmental magnetism

(1)

Plan of the book

(1)

Fundamentals of magnetism

(29)

Introduction

(1)

Magnetic moments of dipoles and current loops

(3)

Magnetic moments of atoms and ions

(2)

Diamagnetism and paramagnetism

(3)

Ferromagnetism

(3)

Exchange coupling and exchange energy

(3)

Ferrimagnetism and antiferromagnetism

(5)

Magnetic sublattices

(1)

Ferrimagnetism

(3)

Antiferromagnetism

(1)

Magnetocrystalline anisotropy and magnetostriction

(9)

Macroscopic description of magnetocrystalline anisotropy

(2)

Microscopic view of magnetocrystalline anisotropy

(2)

Temperature dependence of magnetocrystalline anisotropy

(2)

Magnetostriction and magnetoelastic anisotropy

(3)

Terrestrial magnetic minerals

(38)

Introduction

(3)

Magnetite

(8)

Crystal structure and magnetic sublattices

(2)

Magnetocrystalline anisotropy

(4)

Magnetostriction

(2)

Maghemite

(4)

Structure and saturation magnetization

(3)

Inversion and Curie temperatures

(1)

Magnetocrystalline anisotropy and magnetostriction

(1)

Magnetite-maghemite solid-solution series

(1)

Titanomagnetites

(5)

Titanomaghemites

(3)

Hematite

(4)

Titanohematites

(1)

Iron oxyhydroxides

(2)

Iron sulphides

(3)

Other magnetic minerals

(1)

Magnetism in silicates

(1)

Biogenic magnetic minerals

(3)

Magnetostatic fields and energies

(20)

Introduction

(1)

Self-demagnetization and the internal demagnetizing field

(9)

The parallel-plate capacitor: an electrostatic analog

(1)

Rectangular prism of magnetic material

(3)

Uniformly magnetized sphere

(1)

Uniformly magnetized spheroid and shape anisotropy

(2)

Other bodies with uniform or nearly uniform magnetization

(2)

General methods for finding internal fields

(7)

The magnetostatic potential

(2)

Internal and external fields of a uniformly magnetized sphere

(1)

Internal field of a uniformly magnetized cylinder

(1)

Internal field in cubes with uniform and non-uniform M

(3)

The demagnetizing energy or magnetostatic self-energy

100

(3)

Elementary domain structures and hysteresis

103

(41)

Introduction

103

(3)

Simple domain structures and their energies

106

(7)

Alternative domain states of a particle

106

(1)

Demagnetizing energy of lamellar domain structures

107

(6)

Width and energy of domain walls

113

(9)

180°ree; Bloch walls

113

(5)

70.5°ree; and 109.5°ree; Bloch walls

118

(4)

Width and energy of domains

122

(7)

Equilibrium number and width of lamellar domains

122

(1)

The effect of closure domains

123

(2)

Wall energy in magnetite estimated from Neel spikes

125

(3)

Non-equilibrium domain structures

128

(1)

The single-domain range

129

(4)

Critical single-domain size

129

(3)

Superparamagnetic threshold

132

(1)

Magnetic hysteresis of multidomain grains

133

(4)

Wall displacement, nucleation, and domain rotation

133

(1)

Susceptibility, remanence and coercivity of MD grains

134

(3)

Magnetic hysteresis of single-domain grains

137

(5)

Susceptibility, remanence and coercivity of SD grains

137

(3)

Superparamagnetic magnetization

140

(2)

Domain wall magnetization

142

(2)

Domain observations

144

(27)

Introduction

144

(1)

Bitter-pattern observations on pyrrhotite

145

(3)

Bitter-pattern observations on magnetite

148

(6)

Bitter-pattern observations on titanomagnetite

154

(3)

Bitter-pattern observations on hematite

157

(2)

High-temperature domain observations

159

(3)

Pyrrhotite

159

(1)

Magnetite

159

(2)

Titanomagnetite

161

(1)

Electron microscope observations

162

(4)

SEM observations

162

(2)

TEM observations

164

(2)

MOKE observations

166

(3)

Magnetic force microscopy

169

(2)

Micromagnetic calculations

171

(30)

Introduction

171

(2)

Constrained calculations

173

(1)

One-dimensional micromagnetic calculations

174

(2)

Non-equilibrium or LEM states

176

(2)

Two-and three-dimensional micromagnetic calculations

178

(6)

Methodology

178

(1)

Three-dimensional LEM states

179

(3)

Two-dimensional LEM states

182

(1)

Domain-wall structure

183

(1)

Modelling hysteresis

184

(2)

Modelling grain size changes

186

(4)

Modelling temperature changes

190

(2)

Domain structure changes

192

(5)

Single-domain reversals

192

(3)

Transdomain transitions

195

(2)

Transdomain TRM

197

(4)

Single-domain thermoremanent magnetization

201

(33)

Introduction

201

(2)

Some experimental properties of TRM

203

(3)

Coherent rotation without thermal activation

206

(4)

Magnetization relaxation due to thermal fluctuations

210

(4)

A simple model of single-domain TRM

210

(2)

Thermal relaxation theory

212

(2)

Relaxation times for identical SD grains

214

(3)

Blocking temperature and TRM of identical SD grains

217

(3)

Effect of thermal fluctuations on observed coercivity

220

(3)

Grain distributions and laws governing partial TRM's

223

(1)

Theoretical basis of paleofield intensity determination

224

(2)

Neel diagrams and the blocking-temperature spectrum

226

(3)

AF demagnetization and the coercivity spectrum

229

(3)

Measuring and using the grain distribution, f(V,HKO)

232

(2)

Multidomain thermoremanent magnetization

234

(28)

Introduction

234

(1)

Wall displacement and hysteresis in a 2-domain grain

235

(3)

Wall pinning and total energy

235

(1)

Susceptibility and microscopic coercive force

236

(2)

A simple model of multidomain TRM

238

(1)

The Neel theory of TRM in 2D grains

239

(8)

TRM in the absence of thermal fluctuations

239

(5)

TRM in the presence of thermal fluctuations

244

(3)

Thermal demagnetization of total and partial TRM

247

(5)

Acquisition of partial TRM and paleointensity determination

252

(4)

AF demagnetization and the microcoercivity spectrum

256

(1)

Domain nucleation and TRM

256

(3)

Nucleation failure and TRM

259

(3)

Viscous and thermoviscous magnetization

262

(26)

Introduction

262

(2)

Experimental properties of viscous magnetization

264

(8)

Size effects in magnetic viscosity

264

(2)

Temperature dependence of magnetic viscosity and susceptibility

266

(2)

Magnetic viscosity of TM60 and oceanic basalts

268

(2)

Initial states and multidomain viscous magnetization

270

(2)

Theory of single-domain VRM

272

(4)

Exact theory of viscous magnetization

272

(1)

Blocking theory of VRM

273

(2)

Thermal demagnetization of VRM

275

(1)

AF demagnetization of VRM

275

(1)

Theory of multidomain VRM

276

(1)

Viscous noise problems

277

(1)

Thermoviscous remagnetization

278

(8)

Thermal demagnetization of thermoviscous overprints

278

(6)

AF and low-temperature demagnetization of thermoviscous overprints

284

(2)

Cooling rate dependence of TRM

286

(1)

VRM as a dating method

287

(1)

Granulometry using magnetic viscosity

287

(1)

Isothermal magnetization and demagnetization

288

(40)

Introduction

288

(1)

Single-domain coercivity spectrum and AF demagnetization

289

(2)

Acquisition and `DC demagnetization' of IRM

291

(5)

Lightning and drilling-induced IRM's

292

(2)

Laboratory acquisition and demagnetization of IRM

294

(2)

Anysteretic remance and other AF-related remanences

296

(5)

Anhysteretic remanent magnetization (ARM)

296

(4)

Gyromagnetic remanent magnetization (GRM)

300

(1)

AF demagnetization of SIRM of multidimain grains

301

(5)

A simple theory

302

(2)

Exponential AF demagnetization curves

304

(2)

The Lowrie-Fuller test

306

(4)

Grain interactions and the Wohlfarth relations

310

(2)

The Preisach diagram

312

(4)

Hysteresis and magnetic granulometry

316

(12)

Information from hysteresis loops

316

(1)

Mrs/Ms and Hcr/Hc for ideal MD grains

317

(3)

Mrs/Ms and Hcr/Hc for SD grains

320

(1)

Correlation plot of Mrs/Ms versus Hcr/Hc

321

(2)

Hysteresis of mixtures

323

(1)

Hysteresis as a function of temperature

324

(4)

Pseudo-single-domain remanence

328

(39)

Introduction

328

(1)

Lines of evidence for pseudo-single-domain behaviour

329

(3)

Grain-size dependence of magnetic properties

332

(3)

TRM and ARM

332

(1)

Hysteresis parameters

332

(3)

Low-temperature demagnetization and memory

335

(7)

Low-temperature transition in magnetite

335

(3)

AF demagnetization of low-temperature memory

338

(4)

Thermal demagnetization of TRM and partial TRM

342

(4)

Pseudo-single-domain models

346

(6)

Moments related to dislocations

346

(2)

Surface and volume moments

348

(2)

Moments due to residual wall displacements

350

(2)

Domain-wall moments

352

(2)

Metastable SD grains

354

(4)

The observational evidence

354

(3)

The Halgedahl and Fuller theory

357

(1)

Testing the models

358

(9)

Testing AF demagnetization behaviour

358

(1)

Tests of TRM acquisition

359

(3)

Testing predicted grain size dependences

362

(4)

Testing the temperature dependence of do

366

(1)

Crystallization remanent magnetization

367

(24)

Introduction

367

(1)

Single-phase or grain-growth CRM

368

(5)

Superparamagnetism

368

(2)

CRM acquisition by grain growth

370

(2)

Examples of grain-growth or single-phase CRM

372

(1)

CRM during low-temperature oxidation

373

(3)

Low-temperature oxidation by oxygen addition

374

(1)

Low-temperature oxidation by iron removal

375

(1)

Low-temperature oxidation on the seafloor and magnetic stripes

376

(1)

CRM with a change of lattice

376

(11)

Change of crystal structure and phase coupling

376

(1)

Oxidation of magnetite to hematite

377

(3)

Reduction of hematite to magnetite

380

(1)

Inversion of maghemite to hematite

380

(1)

Oxyexsolution of titanomagnetite

381

(3)

Lepidocrocite dehydration and maghemite inversion

384

(2)

Partial oxidation of pyrrhotite to magnetite

386

(1)

Chemicoviscous remanent magnetization (CVRM)

387

(4)

Magnetism of igneous rocks and baked materials

391

(34)

The oceanic lithosphere and linear magnetic anomalies

391

(3)

The Vine and Matthews' model

391

(2)

The nature of the magnetic anomaly source

393

(1)

Submarine basalts

394

(9)

Primary homogenous titanomagnetite

394

(1)

Structure and cation distribution of titanomagnetite

395

(1)

Identification and magnetic properties of titanomagnetite

396

(1)

Low-temperature oxidation of titanomagnetite

397

(1)

Properties of titanomagnetite

398

(1)

Inversion of titanomagnetite

398

(1)

CRM of titanomagnetite

399

(1)

Intensity and stability of CRM due to maghemitization

400

(2)

Viscous remagnetization of submarine basalts

402

(1)

Summary

402

(1)

Oceanic intrusive and plutonic rocks

403

(1)

Subaerial basalts and andesites

404

(8)

High-temperature oxidation of titanomagnetite

407

(2)

Thermochemical remanent magnetization (TCRM)

409

(1)

Effective grain size of oxidized titanomagnetite grains

410

(2)

Subaerial felsic volcanics and pyroclastics

412

(5)

Titanomagnetite in felsic volcanic rocks

412

(1)

Titanomagnetite

412

(1)

Self-reversal mechanisms

413

(2)

Self-reversal of TRM in titanohematite

415

(2)

Continental intrusive and plutonic rocks

417

(6)

Introduction

417

(1)

Continental mafic dikes and sills

418

(1)

Continental plutonic rocks

419

(3)

Pyrrhotite

422

(1)

Bricks, pottery, and other baked materials

423

(2)

Magnetism of sediments and sedimentary rocks

425

(36)

Introduction

425

(1)

Detrital and post-depositional remanent magnetizations

426

(11)

Theory of detrital remanent magnetization (DRM)

426

(2)

Inclination and other errors in DRM

428

(3)

Effect of thermal fluctuations on DRM

431

(1)

Post-depositional remanent magnetization (PDRM)

432

(3)

Paleointensity determination using sediments

435

(2)

Oceanic and continental sediments and sedimentary rocks

437

(11)

Deep-sea sediments

437

(2)

Fresh-water and marginal-sea sediments

439

(3)

Soils and loess

442

(2)

Sedimentary rocks

444

(2)

Chemical remagnetization

446

(2)

Magnetic properties of hematite

448

(4)

Antiferromagnetism of hematite

448

(1)

Parasitic ferromagnetism of hematite

449

(1)

Low-temperature memory

450

(1)

Coercivity of hematite

451

(1)

Red Sedimentary rocks

452

(9)

CRM of hematite pigment

452

(1)

Grain growth CRM

453

(1)

Hard VRM in red beds

454

(2)

The best method for cleaning red beds

456

(2)

The reliability of red bed results

458

(3)

Magnetism of metamorphic rocks

461

(42)

Metamorphic regimes

461

(5)

Contact metamorphism

461

(2)

Hydrothermal alteration during low-grade metamorphism

463

(1)

Medium-grade and high-grade regional metamorphism

464

(1)

Stress and deformation

464

(2)

Chemical remagnetization during metamorphism

466

(4)

Low-grade metamorphism of basaltic rocks

466

(3)

Moderate-and high-grade metamorphism

469

(1)

Thermoviscous remagnetization during metamorphism

470

(14)

Metamorphic blocking temperature

471

(1)

Thermoviscous overprinting viewed graphically

471

(3)

Survival of primary NRM in thermal metamorphism

474

(1)

Prediction of thermoviscous effects

475

(1)

Experimental findings

476

(4)

Blocking temperatures in continuous cooling

480

(1)

Relative ages of thermally overprinted NRM components

480

(1)

Thermal overprinting of radiometric dates and absolute ages of NRM components

481

(3)

Strees, deformation and anisotropy effects

484

(17)

Anisotropy of petrofabric and its effect on TRM

484

(4)

Reversible piezomagnetic effects

488

(2)

Effects of hydrostatic pressure

490

(2)

Uniaxial stress and piezoremanent effects: single-domain theory

492

(2)

Piezoremanent effects: experimental results

494

(3)

Overprinting by combined stress and temperature

497

(2)

Shock metamorphism and shock remanence

499

(1)

Summary of stress effects

499

(2)

The reliability of paleomagnetic results from metamorphic rocks

501

(2)

Magnetism of extraterrestrial rocks

503

(24)

Introduction

503

(1)

Magnetic properties of iron and of lunar rocks

504

(5)

Lunar rock types

504

(1)

Magnetic properties of iron and iron-nickel

505

(2)

Domain structure, hysteresis, and magnetic viscosity of lunar rocks

507

(2)

Lunar paleomagnetism

509

(7)

The NRM of lunar rocks

509

(4)

Lunar paleofield intensity

513

(3)

Paleomagnetism of meteorites

516

(8)

Origin and types of meteorites

516

(1)

The NRM of meteorites

517

(1)

Anisotropic and spontaneous remanence in iron meteorites

518

(2)

Overprinting of NRM in achondrites

520

(1)

NRM of ordinary chondrites

520

(2)

Paleomagnetism of carbonaceous chondrites and their chondrules

522

(2)

Paleofields in the early solar system

524

(3)

References

527

(38)

Index

565

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Rock Magnetism : Fundamentals and Frontiers

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials