Romania

As a state, Romania has only been in existence since 1859, but the history of its people stretches to the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age, to the Geto-Dacians and Romans. This concise history tells the fascinating story of the evolution of the Romanian people, the creation of the Romanian Principalities, their struggle against empire-building powers, and their eventual unification to form the state of Romania.

Nicolae Klepper was born in Bucharest, Romania. He moved to America with his parents at the outbreak of World War II. After obtaining engineering and business degrees, he worked and lived in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. Now retired, Klepper lives in Edinburgh, Scotland

Illustrations

xiii

Foreword

xvii

Acknowledgments

xxi

Introduction

1

(4)

Pronunciation Guide

5

(2)

Romanian Lands in Antiquity

7

(22)

Stone Age

8

(1)

Bronze Age

8

(4)

Indo-Europeans

11

(1)

Thracians

11

(1)

Iron Age

12

(17)

Early Geto-Dacians

12

(2)

Greek City-States

14

(1)

Geto-Dacians from 650 B.C. to A.D. 106

15

(14)

Dacia as a Roman Province (106 to 271)

29

(10)

Roman Victory

29

(3)

Province of Dacia and Its Surroundings

32

(1)

Life in Dacia Felix

33

(2)

Romanization of the Dacians

35

(1)

Withdrawal of the Romans from Dacia

36

(3)

Into and Out of the Dark Ages (Second-Fourteenth Centuries)

39

(18)

Perspective

39

(3)

Question of Identity

42

(1)

Millennium of Invasions

43

(3)

Avars

44

(1)

Slavs and Petchenegs

44

(1)

Bulgars

45

(1)

Cumans

45

(1)

Tatars (Tartars)

46

(1)

From Daco-Romans to Romanians

46

(4)

Language

48

(1)

Religion

49

(1)

Road to Statehood

50

(7)

Transylvania, Banat, Crisana, and Maramures

50

(2)

Wallachia

52

(1)

Moldavia

53

(1)

Dobrogea

54

(3)

The Romanian Principalities---First 300 Years (Fourteenth-Sixteenth Centuries)

57

(26)

Perspective

57

(1)

Transylvania

58

(4)

Wallachia

62

(10)

Mircea the Old

63

(2)

Alexander Aldea

65

(1)

Vlad Dracul

65

(1)

Vlad III Dracula

66

(3)

Tightening of Ottoman Control

69

(1)

Michael the Brave

70

(2)

Moldavia

72

(8)

Alexander the Good

72

(1)

Stephen the Great

73

(7)

A Short-Lived Union

80

(3)

The Romanian Principalities (1601 to 1821)

83

(22)

Perspective

83

(1)

Transylvania

84

(5)

More Attempts at Unification

84

(1)

Gabriel (Gabor) Bethlen

85

(1)

The Rakoczi Family

85

(1)

Hapsburg Rule

86

(1)

Act of the Union

86

(1)

Peasant Revolt Under Horea, Closca, and Crisan

87

(2)

Wallachia and Moldavia

89

(7)

Radu Serban

89

(1)

Radu Mihnea

89

(1)

Matthew (Matei) Basarab and Basil the Wolf (Vasile Lupu)

90

(3)

Cantacuzinos and Cantemirs

93

(1)

Constantin Brancoveanu

94

(2)

Cultural Development

96

(3)

Phanariot Regime

99

(6)

The Road to Unification (1821 to 1859)

105

(14)

Perspective

105

(1)

Transylvania

106

(2)

Wallachia and Moldavia

108

(9)

End of the Phanariot Regime

108

(4)

Russian Occupation

112

(1)

Organic Regulations

112

(1)

Revolutions of 1848

113

(2)

Crimean War

115

(1)

Union

115

(2)

Meanwhile, The Other Romanian Lands

117

(2)

Bucovina

117

(1)

Bessarabia

117

(1)

Dobrogea

118

(1)

The Road To Independence (1859 to 1881)

119

(14)

Perspective

119

(1)

Revolutions that Transformed Europe

119

(1)

Ottoman Empire

120

(1)

Alexandru Ioan Cuza

120

(6)

Political Parties

123

(1)

Reforms

124

(2)

Prince Carol of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen

126

(7)

Into the Twentieth Century (1881 to 1918)

133

(14)

Perspective

133

(3)

Ententes and Alliances

133

(1)

World War I

134

(1)

Russian Revolution

135

(1)

King Carol I

136

(5)

Political Parties

136

(1)

Peasant Revolts

136

(3)

Neutrality

139

(2)

King Ferdinand I

141

(1)

World War I

141

(6)

Cultural Development in the Nineteenth Century

147

(16)

Early Nineteenth Century

147

(3)

Literature

148

(2)

Art and Architecture

150

(1)

Late Nineteenth Century

150

(13)

Literature

150

(1)

Junimea Literary Society

150

(1)

Mihai Eminescu

151

(3)

Ion Creanga

154

(1)

Visual Arts

155

(1)

Theodor Aman

155

(2)

Nicolae Grigorescu

157

(1)

Ioan Andreescu

158

(1)

Music

158

(1)

Ciprian Porumbescu

158

(1)

Eduard Caudella

159

(1)

Other Major Musical Events

159

(1)

Education and Historiography

159

(2)

Architecture

161

(2)

Greater Romania (1918 to 1940)

163

(22)

Perspective

163

(3)

Aftermath of World War I

163

(1)

Austria

163

(1)

Hungary

164

(1)

Bulgaria

164

(1)

Ottoman Empire (Turkey)

164

(1)

Germany and the Road to World War II

164

(2)

Growing Pains: The Union of 1918

166

(4)

Bessarabia

167

(1)

Bucovina

167

(1)

Transylvania, the Banat, Crisana, and Maramures

168

(2)

King Ferdinand's Postwar Romania

170

(2)

The Regency

172

(1)

King Carol II

172

(13)

National Peasant Party

172

(2)

Carol II's Rise to Power

174

(1)

National Liberal Party

174

(2)

Legion of the Archangel Michael and the Iron Guard

176

(3)

Nicolae Titulescu

179

(1)

National Christian Party

179

(2)

Royal Dictatorship

181

(4)

The Antonescu Regime (1940 to 1944)

185

(18)

Perspective

185

(3)

Ion Antonescu

188

(8)

National Legionary State

190

(2)

Romania at War

192

(4)

Jews of Romania

196

(4)

Jewish Holocaust

196

(2)

Iasi Pogrom

198

(1)

Romania as a Whole

199

(1)

Bessarabia, Bucovina, and Northern Transylvania

199

(1)

End of the War

200

(3)

Romania Under Communism (1944 to 1989)

203

(32)

Perspective

203

(2)

Romanian Communist Party

205

(2)

End of the War

207

(1)

Gheorghiu-Dej Era

208

(15)

Transition

209

(4)

Romanian People's Republic

213

(3)

Metamorphosis of a Nation

216

(2)

Education, Science, and Culture

218

(1)

Romania's Emancipation from the Soviet Union

218

(2)

Industrialization

220

(1)

Hungarian Uprising

221

(1)

Sino--Soviet Discord

221

(1)

Cuban Missile Crisis

221

(1)

Romania's ``Declaration of Independence''

222

(1)

Nationalism and Autonomy

222

(1)

Ceausescu Regime

223

(10)

Nicolae Ceausescu

223

(2)

Foreign Policy

225

(1)

Prague Spring

225

(1)

Treaty with West Germany

225

(1)

Further Contacts with the West

225

(1)

Trade and Industry

226

(1)

Domestic Policy

226

(2)

Ceausescu's Rise and Prominence

228

(1)

Ceausescu's Decline and Downfall

229

(4)

Jews of Romania under Communism

233

(2)

Cultural Development in the Twentieth Century

235

(14)

Early Twentieth Century

235

(4)

Literature

235

(1)

Visual Arts

236

(1)

Music

237

(2)

Architecture

239

(1)

The Interwar Years

239

(7)

Literature

239

(1)

Mihail Sadoveanu

240

(2)

Liviu Rebreanu

242

(1)

George Toparceanu

242

(1)

Visual Arts

243

(2)

Music

245

(1)

Architecture

245

(1)

Late Twentieth Century

246

(3)

Literature and Visual Arts

246

(1)

Music

246

(1)

Architecture

247

(1)

Communist Period

247

(1)

Post-Revolution

248

(1)

EPILOGUE Post-Communist Romania

249

(12)

Transition

249

(1)

Ion Iliescu

250

(1)

First Post-Communist Elections

250

(3)

Unrest, Demonstrations, and Violence

253

(2)

Iliescu Reelected

255

(1)

Opposition Wins

256

(2)

2000 Elections: The Return of Iliescu to Power

258

(3)

Historical Chronology

261

(16)

Bibliography

277

(6)

Index

283

(14)

About the Author

297

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Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials