Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce

Utilizing new archaeological researchGary K. Youngquestions the traditionally held view that the imperial government had a strong political interest in eastern trade. Instead, he argues that their primary motivation was the tax income.

Gary K. Young is currently a tutor in Ancient History at the University of Tasmania.

List of illustrations

xi

Preface and acknowledgements

xiii

List of abbreviations

xv

Introduction

1

(26)

General introduction

1

(4)

A note on the sources

5

(9)

Literary sources

5

(3)

Papyri and ostraka

8

(1)

Inscriptions

9

(1)

Archaeology

10

(3)

Summary of the evidence

13

(1)

Items of the eastern commerce

14

(4)

Genuine luxury goods

14

(2)

Goods of a religious nature

16

(1)

Goods used for medicinal purposes

17

(1)

An overview of the trade in the reign of Augustus

18

(9)

The routes of the south

18

(3)

The routes of the north

21

(2)

The trade in eastern goods within the Roman Empire

23

(1)

The volume of the trade

24

(3)

The Red Sea Trade in Egypt

27

(63)

Routes and commodities of the Red Sea trade

28

(10)

The trade with India

28

(4)

Trade in the East beyond India

32

(2)

The trade with Arabia

34

(2)

The trade with Africa

36

(2)

Commerce in the Red Sea

38

(1)

The Red Sea trade in Egypt under the Julio--Claudians and the Flavians

38

(16)

The Red Sea ports

38

(7)

The desert roads

45

(2)

Coptos

47

(4)

Alexandria and the journey to Rome

51

(3)

The conduct of the Egyptian Red Sea trade

54

(12)

The merchants of the Egyptian Red Sea trade

54

(7)

Direct imperial involvement in the trade

61

(1)

Non-residents of the empire involved in the trade

62

(1)

Ships and shipping of the Red Sea trade

63

(1)

Caravan transport within Egypt

64

(2)

Government involvement in the Red Sea trade

66

(8)

Government officials and the collection of customs duties

66

(3)

The military presence in the Eastern Desert

69

(5)

Egyptian trade in the Antonine period

74

(4)

Red Sea commerce in the second century

74

(1)

Trajan's canal from the Nile to the Red Sea

75

(3)

The Via Hadriana

78

(2)

Decline of the trade in the third century

80

(10)

Palmyrene participation in the Red Sea commerce and trade in the Severan period

80

(2)

Decline of the trade in the third century

82

(4)

Recovery of the trade in the later period

86

(2)

Conclusion: the significance of the trade in Egypt

88

(2)

The Arabian incense trade

90

(46)

The trade routes of the Nabataean kingdom

90

(9)

The overland trade routes of the Nabataean kingdom

91

(3)

Leuke Kome

94

(3)

The routes to the Mediterranean

97

(2)

The Nabataean aromatics trade in the first century AD

99

(13)

Roman military action and Nabataean trade

100

(3)

The effect of Egyptian trade on the commerce of the Nabataean kingdom

103

(1)

The continued existence of land-based commerce in the first century

104

(2)

The Petra--Gaza road

106

(1)

The silver content of Nabataean coins

107

(2)

The development of Nabataean agriculture and the importance of the Hauran

109

(3)

The significance of the aromatics trade in the Nabataean kingdom

112

(5)

The Nabataeans as traders

113

(2)

The involvement of the Nabataean government in the trade

115

(1)

The economic significance of the trade in the Nabataean kingdom

116

(1)

Trade in Provincia Arabia in the Antonine period

117

(5)

The annexation of the Nabataean kingdom

117

(2)

Trade in the Roman province of Arabia

119

(2)

The Roman occupation of Medain Saleh

121

(1)

Arabian trade in the third and fourth centuries

122

(12)

Trade in the Severan period

122

(4)

Arabian trade in the later third century

126

(1)

Recovery under the Tetrarchy

127

(1)

The Limes Arabicus

128

(6)

Conclusion: the incense trade in Nabataean and Roman Arabia

134

(2)

The trade of Palmyra

136

(51)

The rise of Palmyra

136

(15)

The origins of Palmyrene trade

136

(3)

Palmyrene commerce in the Gulf

139

(4)

The kingdom of Mesene

143

(5)

The overland traffic to the Mediterranean

148

(1)

The organisation of the caravan trade

149

(1)

Views of Palmyrene society and the caravan trade

149

(2)

The organisation of the caravan trade

151

(6)

The synodiarch

154

(2)

Finances

156

(1)

The Palmyrene caravan guards

157

(10)

The inscriptional evidence

157

(6)

The nature of the Palmyrene military forces

163

(2)

The development of the Palmyrene militia in the second and third centuries

165

(2)

The effect of the trade on Palmyrene society

167

(6)

The relative significance of the caravan trade at Palmyra

167

(3)

The place of the caravan traders in Palmyrene society

170

(2)

Palmyra's equestrian officers

172

(1)

Palmyra in the third century: crisis, revolt and aftermath

173

(11)

Palmyrene commerce in the third century

173

(2)

The rise of Palmyra as an independent power

175

(3)

Zenobia and the break with Rome

178

(2)

Commercial motivations in the Palmyrene revolt

180

(2)

The effects of Palmyra's fall

182

(2)

Conclusion: the trade of Palmyra

184

(3)

Trade in Syria and the north

187

(14)

The northern routes and the `Silk Road'

187

(7)

The Euphrates route

188

(2)

The `Silk Road'

190

(2)

Hatra

192

(1)

From the Euphrates to the Mediterranean: the trade in Roman Syria

193

(1)

Trade motives and Roman relations with Parthia

194

(4)

Parthian participation in the overland trade

195

(2)

The impossibility of a Parthian silk monopoly

197

(1)

The significance of the trade in northern Syria and Mesopotamia

198

(3)

The long-distance trade and the imperial government

201

(12)

The balance of payments

201

(6)

Roman complaints about the cost of the trade

202

(1)

Was there an `adverse balance of trade' in the eastern commerce?

203

(2)

Roman moralism and the eastern commerce

205

(2)

The extent of state revenues from the trade

207

(4)

Sources of imperial income in the eastern trade

208

(2)

The significance of the tax income to the imperial government

210

(1)

Conclusion: the imperial government's attitude toward the trade

211

(2)

Conclusion

213

(8)

The nature of the trade

213

(3)

The effect of the trade on Roman foreign policy

216

(1)

The effect of the trade on the communities of the Roman East

217

(2)

Summary of conclusions

219

(2)

Appendix A: Prices of goods of the eastern trade at Rome in the first century AD

221

(3)

Prices according to Pliny

221

(1)

The accessibility of the goods

222

(2)

Appendix B: Silver content of Nabataean and Roman coins in the first century AD

224

(5)

Appendix C: Inscriptions referring to Palmyrene military activities AD 132--225

229

(2)

Appendix D: The career of Septimius Odaenathus and the status of Palmyra, AD 251--267

231

(9)

AD 251--257/8

231

(3)

AD 257/8--261

234

(1)

AD 261--267

235

(5)

Notes

240

(41)

Bibliography

281

(18)

Index

299

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Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC - AD 305

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

FREE SHIPPING

Rent More, Save More! Use code: BBRENTAL

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Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC - AD 305

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

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