Safety and Biological Effects in MRI

In vivo magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has evolved into a versatile and critical, if not ‘gold standard’, imaging tool with applications ranging from the physical sciences to the clinical ‘-ology’. In addition, there is a vast amount of accumulated but unpublished inside knowledge on what is needed to perform a safe, in vivo MRI. The goal of this comprehensive text, written by an outstanding group of world experts, is to present information about the effect of the MRI environment on the human body, and tools and methods to quantify such effects. By presenting such information all in one place, the expectation is that this book will help everyone interested in the Safety and Biological Effects in MRI find relevant information relatively quickly and know where we stand as a community. The information is expected to improve patient safety in the MR scanners of today, and facilitate developing faster, more powerful, yet safer MR scanners of tomorrow.

This book is arranged in three sections. The first, named ‘Static and Gradient Fields’ (Chapters 1-9), presents the effects of static magnetic field and the gradients of magnetic field, in time and space, on the human body. The second section, named ‘Radiofrequency Fields’ (Chapters 10-30), presents ways to quantify radiofrequency (RF) field induced heating in patients undergoing MRI. The effect of the three fields of MRI environment (i.e. Static Magnetic Field, Time-varying Gradient Magnetic Field, and RF Field) on medical devices, that may be carried into the environment with patients, is also included. Finally, the third section, named ‘Engineering’ (chapters 31-35), presents the basic background engineering information regarding the equipment (i.e. superconducting magnets, gradient coils, and RF coils) that produce the Static Magnetic Field, Time-varying Gradient Magnetic Field, and RF Field.

The book is intended for undergraduate and post-graduate students, engineers, physicists, biologists, clinicians, MR technologists, other healthcare professionals, and everyone else who might be interested in looking into the role of MRI environment on patient safety, as well as those just wishing to update their knowledge of the state of MRI safety. Those, who are learning about MRI or training in magnetic resonance in medicine, will find the book a useful compendium of the current state of the art of the field.

Editors

Devashish Shrivastava, In Vivo Temperatures, LLC, USA

J. Thomas Vaughan, Columbia University in the City of New York, USA

Contributors xiii

Series Preface xxi

Preface xxiii

Acknowledgments xxv

Part A: Static and Gradient Fields 1

1 Static and Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields and Their Effects in MRIs

Zhenyu Zhang and Stuart Feltham 3

2 Magnetic-field-induced Vertigo in the MR Environment

Paul Glover 23

3 Effects of Magnetic Fields and Field Gradients on Living Cells

Jarek Wosik, Martha Villagran, Ahmed Uosef, Rafik M. Ghobrial, John H. Miller Jr., and Malgorzata Kloc 33

4 Effect of Strong Time-varying Magnetic Field Gradients on Humans

John Nyenhuis and David Gross 53

5 Peripheral Nerve Stimulation Modeling for MRI

Mathias Davids, Bastien Guérin, Lothar R. Schad, and Lawrence L. Wald 67

6 Magnetically Induced Force and Torque on Medical Devices

Terry O. Woods 87

7 A Review of MRI Acoustic Noise and its Potential Impact on Patient and Worker Health

Michael C. Steckner 95

8 Modeling Blood Flow

Michael Keith Sharp 119

9 Effect of Magnetic Field on Blood Flow

G.C. Shit and Sreeparna Majee 133

Part B: Radiofrequency Fields 159

10 Safety Standards for MRI

Michael C. Steckner 161

11 On the Choice of RF Safety Metric in MRI: Temperature, SAR, or Thermal Dose

Devashish Shrivastava 173

12 RF Coil and MR Safety

J. Thomas Vaughan 181

13 Local SAR Assessment for Multitransmit Systems: A Study on the Peak Local SAR Value as a Function of Magnetic Field Strength

Alexander J.E. Raaijmakers and Bart R. Steensma 195

14 Radio Frequency Safety Assessment for Open Source Pulse Sequence Programming

Sairam Geethanath, Julie Kabil, and J. Thomas Vaughan 207

15 RF Heating Due to a 3T Birdcage Whole-body Transmit Coil in Anesthetized Sheep

Samat Turdumamatov, Ça˘gda¸s Oto, Oktay Algın, Hamza Ergüder, and Tahir Malas 219

16 In Vivo Radiofrequency Heating due to 1.5, 3, and 7 T Whole-body Volume Coils

Shuo Song, Ji Chen, Rongxing Zhang, Qiang He, J. Thomas Vaughan, and Devashish Shrivastava 227

17 Temperature Management and Radiofrequency Heating During Pediatric MRI Scans

Stanley Thomas Fricke, Marjean H. Cefaratti, and Andrew Matisoff 239

18 Failure to Monitor and Maintain Thermal Comfort During an MRI Scan: A Perspective from a Thermal Physiologist Turned Patient

Christopher J. Gordon 245

19 MR Thermometry to Assess Heating Induced by RF Coils Used in MRI

Henrik Odéen, John Rock Hadley, Dylan Palomino, Katelynn Stroth, and Dennis L. Parker 251

20 Heating of RF coil

Joseph Murphy-Boesch 273

21 RF-Induced Heating in Bare and Covered Stainless Steel Rods: Effect of Length, Covering, and Diameter

Sunder Rajan, Peter Serano, Joshua Guag, Tayeb Zaidi, Kyoko Fujimoto, Maria Ida Iacono, and Leonardo M. Angelone 289

22 On the Development of a Novel Leg Phantom for RF Safety Assessment for Circular Ring External Fixation Devices in 1.5 T

Xing Huang and Ji Chen 295

23 RF Safety of Active Implantable Medical Devices

Berk Silemek, Volkan Açıkel, and Ergin Atalar 311

24 An Analysis of Factors Influencing MRI RF Safety for Patients with AIMDs

Jingshen Liu, Jianfeng Zheng, Qingyan Wang, and Ji Chen 333

25 On Using Fluoroptic Thermometry to Measure Time-varying Temperatures in MRI

Devashish Shrivastava, Mykhaylo Nosovskyy, and Charles A. Lemaire 345

26 On Using Magnetic Resonance Thermometry to Measure ‘Strong’ Spatio-temporal Tissue Temperature Variations and Compute Thermal Dose

Devashish Shrivastava 351

27 The Use and Safety of Iron-Oxide Nanoparticles in MRI and MFH

Hattie L. Ring, John C. Bischof, and Michael Garwood 361

28 Numerical Simulation for MRI RF Coils and Safety

Julie M. Kabil and Anand Gopinath 379

29 Integral Equation Approach to Modeling RF Fields in Human Body in MRI Systems for Safety

Anand Gopinath 399

30 Safety Practices and Protocols in the MR Research Center of the Columbia University in the City of New York

Kathleen Durkin, Dania Elder, and David H. Gultekin 407

Part C: Engineering 421

31 History, Physics, and Design of Superconducting Magnets for MRI

Bruce Breneman 423

32 Fabrication of Superconducting Magnets for MRI

Bruce Breneman 447

33 Magnet Field Shimming and External Ferromagnetic Influences on the Homogeneity and Site Shielding of Superconducting MRI Magnets

Bruce Breneman 469

34 Gradient Coils

Maxim Zaitsev, Philipp Amrein, Feng Jia, and Sebastian Littin 489

35 RF Coil Construction for MRI

J. Thomas Vaughan and Russell Lagore 503

Index 521

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