Salt Weathering Hazards

The hazards posed to engineering structures by salt weathering are increasing because of such diverse factors as the spread of irrigation and high levels of atmospheric pollution. Salt weathering is also a potent cause of rock decay and geomorphological change in polar, coastal and desert environments. The book discusses the reasons why the hazards are increasing and presents striking case studies from many parts of the world. It also discusses the nature and sources of different salts, the mechanisms that cause the deterioration of building materials and natural rock outcrops, the geomorphological processes of salt attack and their impact on landform development, and the strategies and techniques that are available to combat salt attack. The book is extensively illustrated and has a very comprehensive bibliography of the multi-disciplinary literature.

Andrew Goudie and Heather Viles School of Geography, University of Oxford, UK

Preface

ix

Acknowledgements

xi

The hazard

1

(18)

Introduction

1

(3)

Is the salt hazard increasing?

4

(13)

Conclusions and conceptual framework

17

(2)

Case studies

19

(30)

Introduction

19

(1)

Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan

19

(4)

Suez City, Egypt and Dubai, UAE

23

(6)

Islamic monuments in Uzbekistan

29

(1)

Pueblo buildings of the American West

29

(1)

The Sphinx and other sites in Egypt

30

(2)

Salt weathering in Bahrain

32

(2)

Salt damp in Adelaide, Australia

34

(1)

Pipeline decay in Namibia

35

(1)

The disintegration of roads and runways in the Sahara

36

(3)

Salt heave and concrete corrosion in California

39

(1)

The Nabatean City of Petra, Jordan

39

(2)

Jeronimos Monastery, Lisbon

41

(2)

Sea walls at Weston-Super-Mare, Avon, UK

43

(1)

The historic centre of Oxford, UK

44

(3)

Conclusions

47

(2)

Nature of Salts Involved in Salt Weathering and Sources of Moisture

49

(42)

Introduction

49

(1)

Nature of salts

50

(29)

Sources of moisture for salt weathering

79

(7)

Fingerprinting the sources of salts

86

(3)

Environmental conditions favouring salt weathering

89

(2)

Materials' Susceptibility and Experimental Simulations

91

(32)

Introduction

91

(1)

Materials' susceptibility

91

(2)

Experimental simulations of salt crystallisation and hydration

93

(17)

Relative resistance of different rocks

110

(4)

Experimental simulations of co-associations of salt weathering and other weathering processes

114

(3)

Experimental simulations of sulphation

117

(1)

Experimental simulations of the chemical action of salts

118

(2)

Field experiments on slat weathering in co-association with other processes

120

(2)

Conclusions

122

(1)

Mechanisms of Salt Attack

123

(38)

Introduction

123

(1)

Crystallisation of salts

123

(8)

Hydration

131

(9)

Differential thermal expansion of salts

140

(1)

Slaking

141

(1)

Corrosion effects on reinforcements

142

(1)

Sulphate attack on concrete

142

(3)

Sulphation and crust formation

145

(4)

Chemical weathering by alkaline and other salts

149

(4)

Hygroscopicity, deliquescence and moisture effects

153

(4)

Salt and biological weathering

157

(1)

Salt and frost

158

(2)

Conclusions

160

(1)

Geomorphological Implications of Salt Weathering

161

(34)

Introduction

161

(3)

Salt weathering and pan formation

164

(5)

Tafoni, alveoles, honeycombs and overhangs

169

(9)

Coastal weathering and shore platforms

178

(3)

Production of fine particles

181

(8)

Gypsum crusts and associated blistering and spalling

189

(1)

How fast does salt weathering operate on natural rock outcrops?

190

(4)

Conclusions

194

(1)

Diagnosing, Solving and Managing Salt Weathering Hazards

195

(18)

Introduction

195

(1)

Diagnosing the problem

196

(3)

Avoidance and zoning

199

(1)

Reduction in groundwater level

200

(1)

Modifying local environmental conditions

200

(1)

Stone treatment

200

(4)

Humidity modification

204

(1)

Prevention of damage to bitumen pavements

205

(1)

Protection of bridges and concrete structures against salt attack

206

(1)

Case studies

206

(6)

Conclusions

212

(1)

References

213

(24)

Index

237

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Salt Weathering Hazards

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials