Science and Its Times 1800-1899

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ISBN: 9780787639372 | 0787639370
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 5/1/2000

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"This series discusses how the major fields of science developed during specific time periods. Each volume focuses on a range of years and includes developments in exploration, life sciences, mathematics, physical sciences, and technology. When the series is completed, the seven volumes will cover 2000 B.C. to the present."--"Outstanding Reference Sources," American Libraries, May 2001.

Preface

Advisory Board

Contributors

xiii

Introduction: 1800-1899

xvii

Chronology: 1800-1899

xxi

Exploration and Discovery

Chronology of Key Events

(1)

Overview

(2)

Topical Essays

Humboldt and Bonpland's Landmark Expedition to the Spanish Colonies of South America (1799-1804)

(3)

The Discovery of Australia and Tasmania Greatly Expands the British Empire

(2)

American Far West: The Lewis and Clark Expedition

(3)

Zebulon Pike and the Conquest of the Southwestern United States

(2)

The Temples at Abu Simbel

(3)

The Rosetta Stone: The Key to Ancient Egypt

(3)

James Clark Ross and the Discovery of the Magnetic North Pole

(2)

The Voyage of the HMS Beagle

(3)

Robert H. Schomburgk Explores the Interior of British Guyana, Brazil, and Venezuela and Is the First European to Visit Mount Roraima

(3)

Edward Eyre Explores the South and Western Territories of the Australian Interior and Helps Open the Territories to the Transport of Goods and Animals

(3)

The Wilkes Expedition and the Discovery of Antarctica

(2)

The Buried Cities of Assyria

(2)

John C. Fremont and Exploration of the American West

(3)

Robert McClure Discovers the Elusive Northwest Passage

(2)

David Livingstone Traverses the African Continent

(2)

Robert O'Hara Burke Traverses the Australian Continent from North to South

(2)

Exploration of the Nile River: A Journey of Discovery and Imperialism

(3)

The Nain Singh Expeditions Describe Tibet

(2)

The Discovery of Troy

(2)

Deep-Sea Exploration: The HMS Challenger Expedition

(2)

Henry Morton Stanley Circumnavigates Africa's Lake Victoria and Explores the Entire Length of the Congo River

(3)

Nikolay Przhevalsky and Russian Expansion: The Exploration of Central and East Asia

(2)

Luigi Maria D'Albertis Explores Unknown Interior Regions of New Guinea

(3)

Nils A. E. Nordenskiold Discovers the Northeast Passage

(3)

A Race Around the World

(2)

Biographical Sketches

(24)

Biographical Mentions

(10)

Bibliography of Primary Sources

100

(3)

Life Sciences

Chronology of Key Events

103

(1)

Overview

104

(1)

Topical Essays

Johann Blumenbach and the Classification of Human Races

105

(3)

Population Theory: Malthus's Influence on the Scope of Evolution

108

(2)

Invertebrate Zoology, Lamarckism, and Their Influences on the Sciences and on Society

110

(2)

Advances in Plant Classification and Morphology

112

(3)

Georges Cuvier Revolutionizes Paleontology

115

(2)

Watching as Life Begins: The Discovery of the Mammalian Ovum and the Process of Fertilization

117

(2)

John James Audubon Publishes His Illustrated Birds of America (1827-1838)

119

(3)

Energy Metabolism in Animals and Plants

122

(2)

Advances in Cell Theory

124

(2)

The Agricultural Sciences Flourish and Contribute to the Growing Size, Health, and Wealth of Western Nations

126

(2)

Cell Division and Mitosis

128

(3)

Evolution, Natural and Sexual Selection, and Their Influences on the Sciences

131

(3)

Social Darwinism Emerges and Is Used to Justify Imperialism, Racism, and Conservative Economic and Social Policies

134

(2)

Louis Pasteur's Battle with Microbes and the Founding of Microbiology

136

(3)

Gregor Mendel Discovers the Basic Laws of Heredity while Breeding Pea Plants (1866)

139

(3)

Ferdinand Cohn and the Development of Modern Bacteriology

142

(2)

The Discovery of Viruses

144

(2)

Middle-Class Victorian Men and Women Collect, Identify, and Preserve Plant and Animal Species, Broadening Human Knowledge of the Natural World and Transforming Biology into a Mature Science

146

(3)

Scientists in Europe and the United States Lay the Foundation for the Modern Science of Ecology

149

(2)

Neanderthals and the Search for Human Ancestors

151

(3)

Biographical Sketches

154

(27)

Biographical Mentions

181

(8)

Bibliography of Primary Sources

189

(2)

Mathematics

Chronology of Key Events

191

(1)

Overview

192

(1)

Topical Essays

Fourier Analysis and Its Impact

193

(3)

The Development of Number Theory during the Nineteenth Century

196

(2)

Projective Geometry Leads to the Unification of All Geometries

198

(3)

The Shape of Space: The Beginning of Non-Euclidean Geometry

201

(2)

Topology: The Mathematics of Form

203

(2)

The Rise of Probabilistic and Statistical Thinking

205

(3)

Solving Quintic Equations

208

(2)

Advances in Logic during the Nineteenth Century

210

(3)

Set Theory and the Sizes of Infinity

213

(1)

Development of Higher-Dimensional Algebraic Concepts

214

(3)

George Green Makes the First Attempt to Formulate a Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism (1828)

217

(2)

Advances in Understanding Celestial Mechanics

219

(2)

A New Realm of Numbers

221

(3)

George Boole and the Algebra of Logic

224

(2)

The Promotion of Mathematical Research

226

(3)

Nineteenth-Century Efforts to Promote Mathematics Education from Grade School to the University Level

229

(2)

The Return of Rigor to Mathematics

231

(2)

The Specialization of Mathematics and the Rise of Formalism

233

(3)

Codification and Employment of the Principle of Mathematical Induction

236

(2)

Elliptic Functions Lay the Foundations for Modern Physics

238

(3)

Biographical Sketches

241

(24)

Biographical Mentions

265

(12)

Bibliography of Primary Sources

277

(2)

Medicine

Chronology of Key Events

279

(1)

Overview

280

(2)

Topical Essays

Rene Laennec Revolutionizes the Diagnosis of Chest Diseases with His Invention of the Stethoscope

282

(3)

Human Digestion Studied

285

(3)

William Beaumont

Theodor Schwann

Claude Bernard

William Prout

The Establishment of Schools for the Disabled

288

(3)

Medical Education for Women during the Nineteenth Century

291

(3)

Cholera Epidemics: Five Pandemics in the Nineteenth Century

294

(2)

Modern Anesthesia Is Developed

296

(3)

Antiseptic and Aseptic Techniques Are Developed

299

(3)

Birth of the Nursing Profession

302

(3)

Koch's Postulates: Robert Koch Demonstrates That a Particular Organism Causes a Particular Disease

305

(3)

The Battle against Tuberculosis: Robert Koch, the Development of TB Sanitariums, and the Enactment of Public Health Measures

308

(3)

Deviancy to Mental Illness: Nineteenth-Century Developments in the Care of the Mentally Ill

311

(3)

The Development of New Systems of Alternative Medicine: Homeopathy, Osteopathy, Chiropractic Medicine, and Hydrotherapy

314

(3)

Tropical Disease in the Nineteenth Century

317

(2)

Nineteenth-Century Biological Theories on Race

319

(3)

Western Missionaries Spread Western Medicine Around the World

322

(2)

Nineteenth-Century Views of the Female Body and Their Impact on Women in Society

324

(3)

Phrenology in Nineteenth-Century Britain and America

327

(3)

The Birth of a Profession: Dentistry in the Nineteenth Century

330

(2)

Medicine in Warfare in the Nineteenth Century

332

(3)

Modern Surgery Developed

335

(2)

Nineteenth-Century Developments Related to Sight and the Eye

337

(3)

The Study of Human Heredity and Eugenics during the Nineteenth Century, Focusing on the Work of Francis Galton

340

(2)

The Field of Public Health Emerges in Response to Epidemic Diseases

342

(3)

Biographical Sketches

345

(31)

Biographical Mentions

376

(12)

Bibliography of Primary Sources

388

(3)

Physical Sciences

Chronology of Key Events

391

(1)

Overview

392

(2)

Topical Essays

Revival of the Wave Theory of Light in the Early Nineteenth Century

394

(3)

Nineteenth-Century Development of the Concept of Energy

397

(3)

The Michelson-Morley Experiment, the Luminiferous Ether, and Precision Measurement

400

(2)

Heinrich Hertz Produces and Detects Radio Waves in 1888

402

(3)

The Discovery of Radioactivity: Gateway to Twentieth-Century Physics

405

(3)

J.J. Thomson, the Discovery of the Electron, and the Study of Atomic Structure

408

(2)

Unification: Nineteenth-Century Advances in Electromagnetism

410

(3)

The Replacement of Caloric Theory by a Mechanical Theory of Heat

413

(2)

Nineteenth-Century Advances in the Mathematical Theory and Understanding of Sound

415

(2)

Leverrier, Adams, and the Mathematical Discovery of Neptune

417

(3)

Heavenly Rocks: Asteroids Discovered and Meteorities Explained

420

(2)

Nineteenth-Century Developments in Measuring the Locations and Distances of Celestial Bodies

422

(3)

A New View of the Universe: Photography and Spectroscopy in Nineteenth-Century Astronomy

425

(3)

Nineteenth-Century Efforts to Catalog Stars

428

(2)

John Dalton Proposes His Atomic Theory and Lays the Foundation of Modern Chemistry

430

(3)

Development of Physical Chemistry during the Nineteenth Century

433

(3)

Finding Order among the Elements

436

(3)

Nineteenth-Century Advances in Understanding Gases, Culminating in William Ramsey's Discovery of Inert Gases in the 1890s

439

(2)

Elaboration of the Elements: Nineteenth-Century Advances in Chemistry, Electrochemistry, and Spectroscopy

441

(3)

French Mineralogist Rene Just Hauy Founds the Science of Crystallography with the Publication of Treatise of Mineralogy

444

(2)

William Smith Uses Fossils to Determine the Order of the Strata in England and Helps Develop the Science of Stratigraphy

446

(3)

Charles Lyell Publishes The Principles of Geology (1830-33), in Which He Proposes the Actual Age of Earth to be Several Hundred Million Years

449

(3)

The Discovery of Global Ice Ages

452

(1)

Louis Agassiz

Women Scientists in the Nineteenth-Century Physical Sciences

453

(3)

The Transformation of the Physical Sciences into Professions During the Nineteenth Century

456

(3)

Biographical Sketches

459

(32)

Biographical Mentions

491

(12)

Bibliography of Primary Sources

503

(2)

Technology and Invention

Chronology of Key Events

505

(1)

Overview

506

(2)

Topical Essays

French Inventor Jacquard Produces a Weaving Loom Controlled by Punch Cards (1801), Facilitating the Mechanized Mass Production of Textiles; the Punch Card System Also Influences Early Computers in the 1940s and 1950s

508

(3)

Steam-Powered Railroad Systems Make Possible the Industrial Revolution and Fundamentally Alter the Transportation of Goods and People

511

(2)

Advances in Food Preservation Lead to New Products, New Markets, and New Sources of Food Production

513

(3)

The Steamboat: First Instrument of Imperialism

516

(2)

The Communication Revolution: Developments in Mass Publishing during the Nineteenth Century

518

(2)

Advances in Photography during the Nineteenth Century

520

(3)

Cyrus McCormick Invents the Reaping Machine

523

(2)

Samuel Morse and the Telegraph

525

(2)

Charles Goodyear Discovers the Process for Creating Vulcanized Rubber

527

(3)

Invention of the Sewing Machine

530

(2)

Elisha Graves Otis Produces the First Passenger Elevator with Safety Locks, Facilitating the Growth of High-Rise Buildings

532

(3)

English Inventor Henry Bessemer Develops Process to Produce Inexpensive Steel

535

(2)

The Advent of Mechanical Refrigeration Alters Daily Life and National Economies throughout the World

537

(3)

American Edwin L. Drake Drills the First Oil Well (1859)

540

(2)

The Internal Combustion Engine

542

(2)

The Mass Production of Death: Richard Jordan Gatling Invents the Gatling Gun and Sir Hiram Maxim Invents the Maxim Machine Gun

544

(3)

The Development of the Automatic Writing Machine: The Typewriter

547

(3)

Alexander Graham Bell Patents the First Telephone (1876)

550

(3)

Artificial Gas and Electrical Lighting Systems Are Developed That Change Living and Work Patterns

553

(3)

Use of Electric Power Becomes Widespread

556

(2)

Elegant Spans: Suspension Bridges

558

(2)

The Invention of Automobiles

560

(2)

Quest for Sound: Thomas Edison's Phonograph

562

(3)

Herman Hollerith's Punched Card Tabulating Machine Automates the 1890 U.S. Census

565

(2)

Capturing Life Onscreen: The Invention of Motion Pictures

567

(3)

The First Subways

570

(2)

Safe Enough to Kill: Advances in the Chemistry of Explosives

572

(3)

Biographical Sketches

575

(25)

Biographical Mentions

600

(11)

Bibliography of Primary Sources

611

(2)

General Bibliography

613

(4)

Index

617

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Science and Its Times 1800-1899

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