Spacecraft Sensors

Spacecraft Sensors, the first of its kind, offers a comprehensive review of many aspects and intricacies of sensors used in the spacecraft industry. It covers sensor development from concept, design, and cost, to building, testing, interfacing, integrating, and on-orbit operation. It is intended for the specialist or non-specialist engineer, scientist, and those involved in the business aspect of the spacecraft industry. Focusing on how these various disciplines contribute to the development of a sensor used in space, this key text: Explains how mathematics, physics, business, and engineering-based concepts are used to develop and design a sensor which complies with a set of specific requirements. Discusses essential topics such as cost estimation, signal processing, noise reduction, filters, phased arrays, radars, optics, and radiometers used in space operation. Covers a range of typical sensors used in the spacecraft industry such as infrared, passive microwave, radars and spacebased GPS sensors. Concludes each chapter with examples of past and current orbiting sensors such as DSP, SBIRS, CHAMP, LANDSAT, and GOES to illustrate how concepts are applied. Includes the Matlab codes used to create the example plots in order to give the reader a starting point for further analysis Spacecraft Sensors is an invaluable resource for engineers, technical consultants, those in the business division, and research scientists associated with spacecraft projects. It is also an excellent textbook for undergraduate and postgraduate students studying the development, design and applications of spacebased sensors.

Mohamed M Abid is the author of Spacecraft Sensors, published by Wiley.

Preface

xiii

1 Introduction

1

(50)

1.1 Concepts

1

(4)

1.2 Spacecraft Sensors Cost

5

(8)

1.2.1 Introduction to Cost Estimating

5

(2)

1.2.2 Cost Data

7

(1)

1.2.3 Cost Estimating Methodologies

8

(2)

1.2.4 The Cost Estimating Relationship Method

10

(2)

1.2.5 Insurance Cost

12

(1)

1.3 Spacecraft Sensors Trade-off

13

(1)

1.4 Spacecraft Environment

14

(6)

1.4.1 Vacuum

15

(1)

1.4.2 Neutral Environment Effects

15

(2)

1.4.3 Plasma Environment Effects

17

(1)

1.4.4 Radiation Environment Effects

18

(1)

1.4.5 Contamination

19

(1)

1.4.6 Synergistic Effects

19

(1)

1.4.7 Space Junk

19

(1)

1.5 Standards

20

(3)

1.6 Packaging

23

(1)

1.7 Interface and Integration

24

(4)

1.7.1 Mil-STD 1553 Interface

25

(2)

1.7.2 Proximity Issues

27

(1)

1.7.3 Integration

28

(1)

1.8 Testing

28

(11)

1.8.1 Performance Testing

30

(1)

1.8.2 Thermal Testing

30

(3)

1.8.3 Corona-arcing

33

(1)

1.8.4 Electromagnetic Compatibility and Interference Testing

34

(1)

1.8.5 Vibration Testing

35

(1)

1.8.6 Balancing

36

(2)

1.8.7 Mission Simulation Tests

38

(1)

1.9 Sensors on Orbit

39

(10)

1.9.1 Reference Frame

39

(2)

1.9.2 Coordinate Transfer in Three-dimensional Space

41

(2)

1.9.3 Conic Trajectories

43

(2)

1.9.4 Attitude of a Spacecraft

45

(4)

Bibliography

49

(2)

2 Sensors and Signals

51

(44)

2.1 Sensor Characteristics

51

(5)

2.1.1 Accuracy and Precision

52

(1)

2.1.2 Hysteresis

53

(1)

2.1.3 Calibration

54

(1)

2.1.4 Transfer Function

55

(1)

2.2 Types of Signals

56

(15)

2.2.1 Signal Properties

58

(1)

2.2.2 Periodic Signals

59

(1)

2.2.3 Representing Signals as Impulses

59

(2)

2.2.4 Random Signals

61

(10)

2.3 Transforming a Signal

71

(13)

2.3.1 Analog-to-digital Converter

72

(5)

2.3.2 Digital-to-analog Converters

77

(1)

2.3.3 ADC and DAC Errors

78

(1)

2.3.4 Modulation

79

(5)

2.4 Data Analysis

84

(9)

2.4.1 Uncertainty Analysis and Propagation of Error

86

(1)

2.4.2 Regression Analysis

87

(1)

2.4.3 Least Square Method

88

(1)

2.4.4 Fourier Analysis

89

(4)

Bibliography

93

(2)

3 Noise and Filtering in Spacecraft Sensors

95

(40)

3.1 Internal Noise

96

(5)

3.1.1 Thermal Noise

96

(2)

3.1.2 Thermal EMF

98

(1)

3.1.3 Parameter Noise

98

(1)

3.1.4 Dark Current

99

(1)

3.1.5 Shot Noise

99

(1)

3.1.6 Excess Noise or 1/f Noise

100

(1)

3.1.7 Dielectric Absorption

101

(1)

3.2 External Noise

101

(3)

3.2.1 Clutter Noise

101

(1)

3.2.2 Jamming

102

(1)

3.2.3 Radio Frequency Coupling

103

(1)

3.2.4 Electromagnetic Field Coupling

103

(1)

3.2.5 Inductive Coupling

104

(1)

3.3 Signal-to-Noise Ratio

104

(1)

3.4 Filter Types

105

(10)

3.4.1 Low-pass Filter

109

(3)

3.4.2 High-pass Filter

112

(2)

3.4.3 Band-pass Filter

114

(1)

3.5 Digital Filtering

115

(8)

3.5.1 Window Design

119

(3)

3.5.2 FIR Filter Design Example

122

(1)

3.5.3 IIR Filter Design

122

(1)

3.6 Microwave Filters

123

(3)

3.7 Optical Filters

126

(2)

3.8 Digital Image Filtering

128

(1)

3.9 Kalman Filter

129

(4)

3.9.1 State-space Representation

129

(1)

3.9.2 Discrete Kalman Filter

130

(3)

Bibliography

133

(2)

4 Infrared Sensors

135

(70)

4.1 Electromagnetic Waves

135

(23)

4.1.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

135

(2)

4.1.2 Maxwell's Equations

137

(4)

4.1.3 Wave Equation

141

(4)

4.1.4 Solution to Maxwell's Equations

145

(1)

4.1.5 Phase and Group Velocity

146

(1)

4.1.6 Polarization

147

(1)

4.1.7 Radiance

148

(2)

4.1.8 Irradiance

150

(1)

4.1.9 Interference

151

(2)

4.1.10 Diffraction

153

(2)

4.1.11 Black body Radiation

155

(3)

4.2 Interaction with Matter

158

(5)

4.2.1 Atmospheric Absorption

159

(1)

4.2.2 Reflectance

160

(1)

4.2.3 Scattering

161

(2)

4.3 Optics

163

(12)

4.3.1 Refraction/Reflection

163

(4)

4.3.2 Concave Mirror

167

(1)

4.3.3 Lenses

168

(2)

4.3.4 Lens Combinations

170

(2)

4.3.5 Aberrations

172

(1)

4.3.6 Optical Resolution

173

(2)

4.4 Scanning Mechanisms

175

(4)

4.4.1 Linear Array: Pushbroom

176

(1)

4.4.2 Whiskbroom

177

(1)

4.4.3 Scanner Parameters

178

(1)

4.5 Optical Detectors

179

(8)

4.5.1 Semiconductors

179

(2)

4.5.2 Photoelectric Effect

181

(1)

4.5.3 Performance Criteria for Detectors

182

(1)

4.5.4 Detector Readout

183

(1)

4.5.5 InSb Photodiode

184

(1)

4.5.6 HgCdTe Photodiode

184

(1)

4.5.7 Thermal Control

185

(2)

4.6 Landsat 7: ETM+

187

(3)

4.7 ASTER

190

(5)

4.7.1 ASTER: TIR

191

(2)

4.7.2 ASTER: SWIR

193

(1)

4.7.3 ASTER: VNIR

194

(1)

4.8 GOES

195

(2)

4.8.1 GOES-I Imager

195

(2)

4.8.2 GOES-I/M Sounder

197

(1)

4.9 DSP and SBIRS

197

(6)

Bibliography

203

(2)

5 Passive Microwave Sensors

205

(50)

5.1 Antenna

205

(25)

5.1.1 Vector Potential

206

(2)

5.1.2 Infinitesimal Antenna

208

(4)

5.1.3 Antenna Radiation Pattern

212

(2)

5.1.4 Directivity and Gain

214

(3)

5.1.5 Antenna Polarization

217

(1)

5.1.6 Waveguides

218

(6)

5.1.7 Antenna Types

224

(6)

5.2 Phased arrays

230

(8)

5.2.1 Simple Array of Two Antennas

231

(1)

5.2.2 Linear Antenna Array

231

(4)

5.2.3 Two-dimensional Antenna Array

235

(1)

5.2.4 Beam Steering

236

(2)

5.3 Radiometers

238

(9)

5.3.1 Power-temperature Correspondence for Antennas

239

(1)

5.3.2 Remote Temperature Measurement using Radiometry

240

(3)

5.3.3 Dicke Radiometer

243

(2)

5.3.4 Radiometric Sensitivity

245

(2)

5.4 Aqua: AMSR-E

247

(2)

5.5 SeaSat: SMMR

249

(2)

5.6 Envisat: MWR

251

(2)

Bibliography

253

(2)

6 Spacebased Radar Sensors

255

(42)

6.1 Radar Introduction

255

(23)

6.1.1 Overview

256

(1)

6.1.2 Frequency Bands

257

(1)

6.1.3 Radar Equation

258

(2)

6.1.4 The Radar Range Equation

260

(4)

6.1.5 Radar Cross Section

264

(1)

6.1.6 False Alarm

264

(2)

6.1.7 Doppler Radars and the Doppler Effect

266

(7)

6.1.8 Resolution

273

(3)

6.1.9 RF Power Amplifiers

276

(2)

6.2 Radar Imaging

278

(2)

6.3 Altimetry

280

(3)

6.4 Envisat: RA-2

283

(2)

6.5 Synthetic Aperture Radar

285

(2)

6.6 Envisat: ASAR

287

(3)

6.7 Interferometric SAR

290

(2)

6.8 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

292

(3)

6.8.1 MARSIS

294

(1)

Bibliography

295

(2)

7 GPS

297

(22)

7.1 GPS Overview

297

(2)

7.2 Concept

299

(2)

7.3 GPS Signal

301

(3)

7.3.1 Structure

301

(2)

7.3.2 GPS Data

303

(1)

7.4 GPS Receiver

304

(1)

7.5 GPS Signal Processing

305

(6)

7.5.1 Code Phase Technique

305

(3)

7.5.2 Carrier Phase Method

308

(1)

7.5.3 GPS Error Sources

308

(1)

7.5.4 GPS Clock

309

(2)

7.6 GPS Coverage

311

(1)

7.7 GPS for Atmospheric Measurements

312

(2)

7.8 Docking/Rendezvous

314

(2)

7.9 Attitude Determination

316

(1)

7.10 AMSAT-OSCAR 40 (AO-40)

317

(1)

Bibliography

318

(1)

Index

319

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Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

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Spacecraft Sensors

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials

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